WEBVTT NOTE duration:"00:58:18.3440000" NOTE language:en-us NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 44f0d9a5-2656-4d0c-9a7d-cccdec1f3d1c 00:00:06.030 --> 00:00:08.934 Hi, everyone. I'm Professor Armstrong, and it's my pleasure NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 92daebff-3541-4de8-b4a3-cc5e5c01bd03 00:00:08.934 --> 00:00:12.927 to speak with you today about Plato's Republic. I'm a philosophy NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 d3696a23-9aa8-4cc3-b2b4-d770ad6262c1 00:00:12.927 --> 00:00:15.831 professor in Lawrence's Philosophy Department, and I NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 ca83bf28-2fce-413b-8d10-e00f28754301 00:00:15.831 --> 00:00:19.098 research the history of ideas, especially how possible worlds NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 e0c661c4-2e8d-476f-ad46-056e98dc4ddc 00:00:19.098 --> 00:00:22.365 and possible ways things could be, and alternative realities NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 b2bf21db-74ed-4b8c-ab1c-07d74b6b5568 00:00:22.365 --> 00:00:25.269 through fiction and fantasy and scientific hypothesizing and NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 a915f669-3494-40df-aef6-bf48efc272ad 00:00:25.269 --> 00:00:28.536 philosophical thought experiments, could all be good guides to NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 dd88609e-283b-4f67-9c4b-1c389266357f 00:00:28.536 --> 00:00:31.803 thinking about and better understanding the ways in which NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 790a6011-79c9-498b-b9b6-8063c6b42e79 00:00:31.803 --> 00:00:35.796 the world actually is.  And we'll see in Plato's Republic maybe NOTE Confidence: 0.8367829 d07d7ea5-09d7-4b86-990f-a84c49e8ebf7 00:00:35.796 --> 00:00:39.426 even a guide to the way the world should be. NOTE Confidence: 0.871077 a2d85f6c-56d2-4c58-b1aa-e59b24428b4f 00:00:40.330 --> 00:00:42.810 So let's see how that plays out, let's get started. NOTE Confidence: 0.8379657 60cf2543-deb7-4ec8-8780-85ec657c10a5 00:00:45.140 --> 00:00:49.578 I wanted to start by giving you a sense of just how long ago NOTE Confidence: 0.8379657 31d7ed53-4838-4dbf-8372-e628bfcdbb00 00:00:49.578 --> 00:00:53.065 Plato wrote the Republic, so I've charted all of the Freshman NOTE Confidence: 0.8379657 3d61438b-6387-4463-a706-6b52aec3491b 00:00:53.065 --> 00:00:54.650 Studies works on a timeline. NOTE Confidence: 0.886738 d252d306-ae3f-40b4-9cba-85c98d2fe2ca 00:00:55.710 --> 00:00:57.450 The winter works are along the NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 7969e098-0f7a-4ca1-a3cc-67ff5e886b5d 00:00:57.450 --> 00:01:02.969 bottom here. And the fall works along the top. You're already NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 6e0ad851-283d-418f-aba8-59f28234176c 00:01:02.969 --> 00:01:06.266 familiar with Natasha Trethewey's 2006 Native Guard, NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 ece9574f-2333-48c1-84a8-a49eccc2adec 00:01:06.266 --> 00:01:10.976 as well as Thomas D. Seeley's Honeybee Democracy from 2010, NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 40a9e93b-83e0-4347-8f25-f0d67c3e5bf1 00:01:10.976 --> 00:01:16.157 Plato's Republic, all the way back here, was written in 380 NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 6a7c34b0-34d5-4285-be47-fd0e718b96ae 00:01:16.157 --> 00:01:20.396 BCE. There are 2386 years separating Plato's Republic and NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 bfa4670b-61f6-47a3-9270-478317d509f1 00:01:20.396 --> 00:01:25.577 Trethewey's Native Guard. And yet, as I read the Republic, I NOTE Confidence: 0.81537986 e55e6f35-c7e4-4656-93c7-e5e264b7c942 00:01:25.577 --> 00:01:30.287 can't help but think of the words of Tretheway's narrator NOTE Confidence: 0.8564131 23891012-72a5-4016-8943-8a83c1a1c415 00:01:30.380 --> 00:01:34.891 from Native Guard: "I'm told it's best to spare most detail, but I NOTE Confidence: 0.8564131 c950a49e-73f3-4478-85ef-cef8269bac8e 00:01:34.891 --> 00:01:39.055 know there are things which must be accounted for. These are the NOTE Confidence: 0.8564131 4ff99251-4da6-46b6-9584-e01dbc37e627 00:01:39.055 --> 00:01:42.178 things which must be accounted for . . . truth be told." NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 fea001f0-b4a7-405a-be85-53a91788e542 00:01:42.880 --> 00:01:46.500 At the start of the term, Professor Range posed two NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 a7ffbb78-656e-45a5-9baf-ce826d771c99 00:01:46.500 --> 00:01:50.482 questions about these lines. She asked, "What are the things that NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 284be68f-0def-401b-851d-b371f64bcd91 00:01:50.482 --> 00:01:55.188 must be accounted for?" And "What is it to give an account?" Plato NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 0793d079-76a0-49c2-a5c8-33711483068c 00:01:55.188 --> 00:01:58.808 is interested in these questions, too. In Book 10, Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 e0c94089-0dd9-42cc-a09a-0d1afa17a288 00:01:58.808 --> 00:02:03.514 explains, "no one is to be honored or valued more than the truth. NOTE Confidence: 0.87605727 2ce60cb2-4264-4d7a-80f4-3ccd64a5b79f 00:02:03.514 --> 00:02:06.410 So, as I say, it must be told." NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 580ffb8a-0bca-49d0-b9d7-9d5716d7aa36 00:02:07.080 --> 00:02:11.392 So I urge you to keep these two questions in mind as you read NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 209e5208-e142-4f86-b4d6-bb6d289e6887 00:02:11.392 --> 00:02:14.780 the Republic. What must be accounted for? And how do we NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 06bb7850-4fd4-4a25-981e-1e6bf68b4f86 00:02:14.780 --> 00:02:18.168 give an account? My aim today is to make some suggestions NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 241f9705-a368-41df-87b8-8ca7c672bd28 00:02:18.168 --> 00:02:21.556 about how Plato answers these questions, but those are not my NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 4011157b-7cfd-46bf-b2cd-f7669d1164e2 00:02:21.556 --> 00:02:24.944 only goals. There are really three things I hope you'll get NOTE Confidence: 0.87340426 e206340b-c641-4a99-a962-48808fc288da 00:02:24.944 --> 00:02:26.176 out of today's lecture. NOTE Confidence: 0.88425857 b1cc73cc-3985-4672-8533-332ae55076b0 00:02:27.280 --> 00:02:30.358 The first is context. More information about the context NOTE Confidence: 0.88425857 d7a51131-b9e7-40ce-ab94-821218ffe9c8 00:02:30.358 --> 00:02:34.120 in which Plato wrote the Republic and the origin of the NOTE Confidence: 0.88425857 457d9f04-44f5-404a-bd18-6a47b861d2b1 00:02:34.120 --> 00:02:38.224 Republic as a book, which is not just the result of Plato's NOTE Confidence: 0.88425857 0025dcf3-03f1-40d5-9dda-8cb776b58978 00:02:38.224 --> 00:02:41.644 effort, but the effort of those that copied it, carried NOTE Confidence: 0.88425857 e8aefa8d-6444-4e4a-ac3b-2130708368ab 00:02:41.644 --> 00:02:43.354 it, and commented on it. NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 c53db421-2fad-4608-9d27-89732c95058f 00:02:44.420 --> 00:02:48.658 Second, I want to have a look at some of the distinctive methods NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 6062e7b4-b7e7-435e-b35c-88fc026dc3b5 00:02:48.658 --> 00:02:51.592 that Plato uses to investigate themes like justice and NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 b2e73696-d9dc-4d9e-a14f-6a8b8df93e2f 00:02:51.592 --> 00:02:55.504 education in the Republic. I should add that in the 13th NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 59081c0f-cc7b-4483-8748-5391430882a4 00:02:55.504 --> 00:02:58.438 century a school was founded in Italy, based on Plato's NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 21092246-a0c5-4b70-98e4-ce3d0d86eb31 00:02:58.438 --> 00:03:01.698 teachings, and it resulted in many of Plato's works being NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 0cd34e25-e273-43b7-970e-9be18f52849c 00:03:01.698 --> 00:03:05.284 banned and censored, but not for the content directly, because of NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 3e9646bb-3501-4256-b3fb-6f2501827255 00:03:05.284 --> 00:03:09.522 the methods. And third, I want to look at the guiding questions of NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 c860f595-9c53-4f59-964c-18dbbdee4110 00:03:09.522 --> 00:03:13.434 the Republic. Having a program of questions can be so powerful, and NOTE Confidence: 0.8751271 1b0dab79-768d-499f-802a-51d0265f769e 00:03:13.434 --> 00:03:15.064 what is remarkable about Plato's NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 d048112a-4dd9-4e45-8bb3-5a963f04e144 00:03:15.064 --> 00:03:18.104 Republic is the agenda of questions Plato sets. I NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 4fee1476-92ab-4bee-be83-dc584909b69a 00:03:18.104 --> 00:03:21.657 certainly want you to consider some of the answers that Plato NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 bc0d33f4-9f23-4a4f-a54e-804d8abca314 00:03:21.657 --> 00:03:25.533 offers, but it's the set of questions, too, that are so NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 38d8c6d8-1c5c-4a0b-8b91-d24c450657b2 00:03:25.533 --> 00:03:28.763 important. In order to begin to understand Plato's answers to NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 7b3256e9-d319-4692-a571-ff2571988515 00:03:28.763 --> 00:03:32.639 these questions, we really have to go back in time, so I've NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 2663bd75-a43a-4213-ad4a-a9e93e9d9788 00:03:32.639 --> 00:03:36.515 returned here to the timeline, and we'll start in 2020, and we'll NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 ba06ec50-0431-4008-88b9-a52a430bd501 00:03:36.515 --> 00:03:40.068 go back, past the periodic table of elements, past Arabian Nights. NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 1e9f6df8-dda2-44d9-aa96-43f136046ff2 00:03:40.068 --> 00:03:44.267 We have to go so far back that the numbers count down and then NOTE Confidence: 0.87040806 e1e78a2f-1111-4ed2-86ee-7e696b56272d 00:03:44.267 --> 00:03:46.205 start to count back up again. NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 6018c4aa-f6e7-47b7-ae55-21af780aa6f2 00:03:46.650 --> 00:03:51.105 Here is Plato's Republic, written in 380 BCE, and here's a NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 d9c88cce-0eb4-4f95-8b3c-d7f255224849 00:03:51.105 --> 00:03:55.560 picture of the text that you're familiar with. However, this is NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 528d5bc7-6a74-43af-9e9e-57542455727d 00:03:55.560 --> 00:03:59.610 pretty misleading, because Plato didn't write a book. Plato wrote NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 7375e25d-25ce-4402-bf4d-7cfee6760686 00:03:59.610 --> 00:04:03.660 a philosophical treatise on a scroll. This is what the NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 503cf7d7-7ecc-447a-82fa-62158c29a9cb 00:04:03.660 --> 00:04:08.520 Republic would have looked like in 380 BCE, and perhaps you can NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 3a3601b0-b130-4a83-819b-609f5b386cfd 00:04:08.520 --> 00:04:13.380 make it out here. You can see column after column of text. NOTE Confidence: 0.8357774 4d7b25e6-27b5-4925-a45f-2457c829d2ec 00:04:13.380 --> 00:04:16.620 There would be no punctuation here, no spaces, NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 47f25190-29b7-4d60-b5c4-d537714c44ec 00:04:16.730 --> 00:04:20.960 and only uppercase letters. The Republic would have been roughly NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 03da87ee-7b31-4c62-b81c-d82c216f4afd 00:04:20.960 --> 00:04:26.036 33 feet long, rolled onto dowels, unrolled, as it's read, and then NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 5878e372-8f62-41c3-be63-b21988481925 00:04:26.036 --> 00:04:31.112 rewinded back onto the dowels in order for the next person to NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 7e93e3d6-63ed-4832-bf57-db27ef8069f4 00:04:31.112 --> 00:04:37.034 read it. Not easy to read, but not easy to write either, and to NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 43952907-dfd4-41b4-8fad-46bc4b4bb6cf 00:04:37.034 --> 00:04:42.533 see why we have to go back another 19 years earlier, to 399 NOTE Confidence: 0.8069263 f768ea69-332a-4014-b151-9c8ef4d25859 00:04:42.533 --> 00:04:46.763 BCE, because that's when Plato's mentor, Socrates, who was also NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 5522d876-5be5-441b-b11f-095f4b627d2b 00:04:46.763 --> 00:04:50.464 his teacher, went on trial. Socrates was charged by the NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 f6f82a5d-ae51-4bbc-a4b7-705609ffd80c 00:04:50.464 --> 00:04:53.551 Athenian citizens with two crimes: corrupting the youth, and NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 a10bc29d-8a6c-4a53-94ad-3fd4a452685c 00:04:53.551 --> 00:04:56.638 failing to believe in traditional gods. He denied that NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 1a394998-5ca4-4e76-931a-9e0c89e57e3f 00:04:56.638 --> 00:05:00.754 he was guilty of the charges in his defense, and he famously NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 d60cb0db-678e-499a-b5ee-4008598f00d1 00:05:00.754 --> 00:05:04.527 claimed that the unexamined life was not worth living. Now that's NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 d2949b18-9564-4209-814d-2ef87a33c9ee 00:05:04.527 --> 00:05:08.986 a phrase I might unreflectively put on a bumper sticker or on a NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 aa19dccf-86e0-49b2-8d92-5e4547690b3f 00:05:08.986 --> 00:05:13.445 coffee mug, but for those of you who have been reading Books 1 NOTE Confidence: 0.85317594 e1370794-698e-4569-be1e-0cbacfc6dccb 00:05:13.445 --> 00:05:16.875 and 2 of the Republic, you know that Socratic examination NOTE Confidence: 0.89582723 fa2c8e6b-3f1f-4d8f-98e1-dd4e68c5f9cd 00:05:16.875 --> 00:05:20.075 is difficult. It can be repetitive, perplexing, and even NOTE Confidence: 0.89582723 5db41cab-5a5d-412b-a02d-bcbac09d61df 00:05:20.075 --> 00:05:23.430 alienating, because sometimes it shows us that we don't know as NOTE Confidence: 0.89582723 74360947-feb1-4838-bd8e-fdc253ba8e77 00:05:23.430 --> 00:05:25.260 much as we thought we did. NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 6b7191d4-2275-4c84-9f66-8c6f0d9804b6 00:05:26.210 --> 00:05:30.100 So here's what it's like -- a cautionary tale, taking a NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 41d7a565-1c21-49fe-95bb-bc2a5dee8a18 00:05:30.100 --> 00:05:34.768 philosopher to the grocery store with you. So I want you to NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 20b6be6b-b493-4ca4-a7ed-6595087ccdae 00:05:34.768 --> 00:05:39.047 imagine going to a local grocery store. Here's Woodman's, one of NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 24404306-63ae-420a-9e27-5b5956919147 00:05:39.047 --> 00:05:42.548 Wisconsin's favorite grocery stores, open 24 hours, and there NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 384577a6-4a68-44fe-bcb4-4433764ec244 00:05:42.548 --> 00:05:46.827 is a familiar sight: someone is offering you free samples of NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 2c9b96f7-fb32-4354-b76a-5cb4b2d6bbbf 00:05:46.827 --> 00:05:51.106 all-natural chicken brats, and as they hand you and your NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 cf5395ed-4c12-47b7-a341-fcae74f3e10f 00:05:51.106 --> 00:05:54.996 philosophy friend a sample brat, they say, "All-natural is NOTE Confidence: 0.85342836 58eef351-5f83-4d9a-bd6e-4c5dccaeec09 00:05:54.996 --> 00:05:56.552 better." And unfortunately they NOTE Confidence: 0.7894976 ea77a426-9fcb-4be2-95fe-3102e9e8427e 00:05:56.552 --> 00:05:58.910 lock eyes with the philosopher. NOTE Confidence: 0.8663459 16fd6c15-ee34-4857-8a02-977fbf927e0d 00:06:00.360 --> 00:06:04.221 And that is a mistake, because the philosopher immediately NOTE Confidence: 0.8663459 3356b1fa-7e3f-4d30-b0b9-c265fbeff392 00:06:04.221 --> 00:06:05.508 asks, "Oh, natural? NOTE Confidence: 0.8803849 37e158f3-8bf3-4ad8-a27a-c2a34743b991 00:06:06.160 --> 00:06:10.241 Natural is better? What do you mean by natural? What makes NOTE Confidence: 0.8803849 53c8956f-17ab-46ca-8e38-c9f336cab1fb 00:06:10.241 --> 00:06:14.322 something natural?" Now, you have a quick suggestion. You say, "Oh, NOTE Confidence: 0.8803849 2fc46088-2e73-4d68-91aa-d8513aad3ea4 00:06:14.322 --> 00:06:17.661 you know, it means the ingredients are not processed. NOTE Confidence: 0.8803849 2ad6d4dc-39a7-4ca5-9b15-5622685e05a5 00:06:17.661 --> 00:06:21.742 They are not artificial." And now that's a good suggestion, but NOTE Confidence: 0.8803849 75ab56ab-8b98-4d86-875e-bb710292d87a 00:06:21.742 --> 00:06:23.597 it's not over. No, no. NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 4f3eabf9-2d84-4c94-8d49-64cd2157d625 00:06:24.340 --> 00:06:27.589 The philosopher asks, "Well, what does it mean to NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 38d82e9f-921a-406e-848e-55dafeb46b57 00:06:27.589 --> 00:06:30.116 process something? Is cooking a process? Does NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 e6897ce8-6b55-458f-8d3e-bf9e73798ad4 00:06:30.116 --> 00:06:33.004 cooking make food less natural? And what about NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 b5b77ace-ea55-4611-9af7-61965598f4e4 00:06:33.004 --> 00:06:35.892 artificial? Is it artificial that the NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 edf0ac00-05e0-484c-b632-17803a214c8e 00:06:35.892 --> 00:06:39.141 chickens were raised in a coop or selectively bred NOTE Confidence: 0.8546859 5c14b89b-97cf-4c7c-9797-7da6912807f1 00:06:39.141 --> 00:06:40.224 or genetically modified?" NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 5c6a3e4c-5398-47cf-8fa8-e306c4213e91 00:06:41.310 --> 00:06:45.535 Now you want to enjoy your free sample, so you say, "Okay, perhaps NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 a1f606b2-2e6c-42e7-a79d-d7d45d22924a 00:06:45.535 --> 00:06:48.460 natural means the chicken hasn't been exposed to NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 2f4899df-810e-4cb1-b191-93856edf0b3f 00:06:48.460 --> 00:06:52.360 antibiotics and only fed organic grain and has some access to the NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 54856dfa-7008-4a21-8165-ec39bbeffb1d 00:06:52.360 --> 00:06:55.935 outdoors sometimes." And maybe that is what we mean by natural NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 6d2a3459-65bb-4151-aa75-75da3b737383 00:06:55.935 --> 00:06:59.835 when it comes to eating animals. But it's not over yet. Your NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 7a8603aa-766c-49c4-8e58-1fa75123318e 00:06:59.835 --> 00:07:02.760 philosopher friend is only halfway there, because even if NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 2fa70483-278a-4112-9832-7ee87cf7ce87 00:07:02.760 --> 00:07:06.985 we can determine what it is for chicken brats to be all-natural, NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 fb050aa5-4da8-43a5-a064-6bb715e9e4cf 00:07:06.985 --> 00:07:10.235 there is still the question of whether natural brats are NOTE Confidence: 0.8731199 2b3473c4-d02b-442a-9b4c-5436968ab0fa 00:07:10.235 --> 00:07:13.810 better.  Because a philosopher in the grocery store does not just  NOTE Confidence: 0.8793628 fc8bb46e-aa53-47fd-a548-5931a6e44302 00:07:13.890 --> 00:07:18.713 ask what natural is, but why is it better? Better for who? For NOTE Confidence: 0.8793628 b6dbcd7c-3522-4e35-96b0-9ca08b5a217a 00:07:18.713 --> 00:07:22.052 the chicken? For the environment, the rivers and the NOTE Confidence: 0.8793628 27dcf17f-b641-4d7f-9ae4-92e1497bda35 00:07:22.052 --> 00:07:25.762 soil? For my health? For the brat company's bottom line? NOTE Confidence: 0.8793628 ff8f199c-90a3-4166-bb2a-f3f59c87cab8 00:07:25.762 --> 00:07:29.472 Those are the types of questions that philosophical analysis will NOTE Confidence: 0.8918718 6e092c82-46c5-498f-a462-f1dbd20a8457 00:07:29.472 --> 00:07:33.790 get you. And these types of exchanges can be NOTE Confidence: 0.8918718 3ab44ed9-ed07-456c-9eea-fb6b5093d107 00:07:33.790 --> 00:07:36.750 frustrating, and sometimes they mean that you will not get NOTE Confidence: 0.8918718 c31fcedc-fda9-442d-88be-bc4474f649b2 00:07:36.750 --> 00:07:38.230 samples at the grocery store. NOTE Confidence: 0.8746082 67bfd816-cb6b-4596-9103-cc5a1454e3d7 00:07:39.320 --> 00:07:43.055 And this is the type of philosophical examination that NOTE Confidence: 0.8746082 df008092-c178-4c5a-b765-6960b45e8b48 00:07:43.055 --> 00:07:46.790 Socrates affirmed made life valuable. It is this, the NOTE Confidence: 0.8746082 b485e2dc-ea66-469b-be34-e483d374eeec 00:07:46.790 --> 00:07:50.940 unexamined life in this sense, that is not worth living. NOTE Confidence: 0.86981225 991ff7a3-a3e7-44f7-8dea-dfae5f0583e0 00:07:53.060 --> 00:07:57.537 You see, the jury found Socrates guilty of corrupting the youth NOTE Confidence: 0.86981225 2aef9de2-6121-405a-be22-18eb2bf32127 00:07:57.537 --> 00:08:01.607 and not believing in traditional gods, but Socrates felt so NOTE Confidence: 0.86981225 35882156-7e81-4a1f-b2f9-9f5ef297d6e6 00:08:01.607 --> 00:08:05.677 strongly about the value of philosophising that he told the NOTE Confidence: 0.86981225 d44f199d-792f-40b7-9a8c-ed2274e4b3ae 00:08:05.677 --> 00:08:10.561 jury, made up of 501 of his fellow Athenian citizens, NOTE Confidence: 0.86981225 da615a79-4b82-4c45-811f-ad50a7ab8e0f 00:08:10.561 --> 00:08:13.003 that no matter how much you NOTE Confidence: 0.79794437 1850b316-f79c-42db-b311-5d96f6d2e774 00:08:13.003 --> 00:08:16.620 punish me, I will not stop philosophizing, NOTE Confidence: 0.79794437 344800cf-51cd-44b7-819f-b1e5879d1df4 00:08:16.620 --> 00:08:18.580 even if you exile me. NOTE Confidence: 0.9259958 2c44c528-9a4b-4736-b93e-b17c9179947c 00:08:19.630 --> 00:08:22.458 So, can you imagine what they did? NOTE Confidence: 0.8761692 1ceef589-628c-4e53-bfca-d84c2204fed9 00:08:24.960 --> 00:08:28.443 They executed him. And I want to be clear. NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 56074b41-1a5d-46d2-966d-e504c7048da5 00:08:29.690 --> 00:08:33.499 The aim of examining one's life and the lives of others is not NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 33685f9f-3493-4210-a9c8-92724bce2834 00:08:33.499 --> 00:08:37.015 to be annoying, although it can be infuriating. The goal is to NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 fbeb1fba-2892-459f-b6e1-b409be9fa94e 00:08:37.015 --> 00:08:39.359 honestly and productively reflect on our own beliefs and NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 f10763a2-ec16-4d9f-9494-6694d3dfb8fe 00:08:39.359 --> 00:08:42.875 assumptions, and if it means we realize we know less than we NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 98cf7e63-419a-4652-ae0b-88c03f7739ae 00:08:42.875 --> 00:08:46.684 thought, Socrates thinks we'd be better off for it. But I have to NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 662bd486-2c16-480c-8bf6-c1e89fe7451b 00:08:46.684 --> 00:08:49.907 tell you more about this story. You see, they didn't execute NOTE Confidence: 0.8512984 9e4b8874-878b-49d8-a790-f8ba15e540ba 00:08:49.907 --> 00:08:52.837 Socrates just because Socrates was a pain and wouldn't stop NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 ce1134aa-79b2-4658-b359-15d75ede31bb 00:08:52.837 --> 00:08:57.968 philosophizing. Five years before the trial of Socrates, NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 5015f701-8a15-4a5c-8ff5-a3899dc0f421 00:08:57.968 --> 00:09:03.128 a neighboring state of Athens, Sparta, backed 30 Athenians to NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 e8e21797-f487-40d0-bb9e-29e249fe5691 00:09:03.128 --> 00:09:07.256 take over the democratic Athenian government by force. NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 a4b558ce-ffa0-43df-a3e5-bb9bfb3e7d6b 00:09:07.256 --> 00:09:12.932 And when they gained control, they executed 5% of the Athenian NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 74f048a2-6bf7-4011-b08f-748fa4338809 00:09:12.932 --> 00:09:15.512 population, including foreigners, supporters of NOTE Confidence: 0.86015815 85aabd4e-9880-4513-bd7c-4a9ae5ff678f 00:09:15.512 --> 00:09:17.060 democracy, and wealthy NOTE Confidence: 0.7870331 0cf872fb-80df-4326-a5a3-df1b03793253 00:09:17.060 --> 00:09:21.456 businessmen. One such wealthy businessman, Cephalus, was NOTE Confidence: 0.7870331 715b1e9e-83e9-4466-8892-d9d206592267 00:09:21.456 --> 00:09:24.111 executed along with his son, NOTE Confidence: 0.80867344 1a8e1221-ad35-4cca-becb-a20799dd0c1f 00:09:24.111 --> 00:09:29.673 Polemarchus. The reign of the 30 lasted about a year, NOTE Confidence: 0.80867344 d9417ae4-e98e-4d03-b61e-5ce918f1b2cb 00:09:29.673 --> 00:09:33.843 until again, by force, the democrats got a stronghold in NOTE Confidence: 0.80867344 fcefec7a-3408-40a1-b3b5-f7917faaf0d5 00:09:33.843 --> 00:09:37.596 the walled harbor of Athens, known as the Piraeus. NOTE Confidence: 0.82994294 3f2a6487-06de-425b-b74d-ed640befbda9 00:09:38.910 --> 00:09:43.270 And so democracy was ultimately restored, but the damage had NOTE Confidence: 0.82994294 f61f4a63-6c24-4202-a5bc-4546d2bc4acb 00:09:43.270 --> 00:09:46.758 been done. Citizens feared further violent takeover, with NOTE Confidence: 0.82994294 aa2b9f97-1170-49a3-9957-93be6f67d8d1 00:09:46.758 --> 00:09:51.118 different factions vying for power. The leader of the 30, NOTE Confidence: 0.82994294 9190df11-e398-4d9d-9ddb-62d990cb5cb4 00:09:51.118 --> 00:09:55.914 Critias, had died in battle, but his teacher and mentor lived NOTE Confidence: 0.789946 d5ee5a74-29ec-490d-8f34-1d4cf0b432a1 00:09:55.914 --> 00:09:59.180 on: Socrates. So, many think that NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 8a2e8777-04d9-41d5-9233-6f8201902796 00:09:59.180 --> 00:10:02.648 the execution. Socrates was not directly about his NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 fcce016b-93e4-4790-94d7-26d9f58205ba 00:10:02.648 --> 00:10:06.455 philosophizing. Or, I mean, maybe it was.  Had Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 ad22eafb-58c2-4300-a63f-f306c0af6ad4 00:10:06.455 --> 00:10:09.839 instigated the violent upheaval? People asked, what is NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 11257b55-7b5d-4cd6-b895-ec4983f1f6ca 00:10:09.839 --> 00:10:13.223 philosophy good for? And Socrates answered with his NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 4d89eccd-5d71-425e-b536-9faaf9dddb68 00:10:13.223 --> 00:10:17.453 death.  But Critias was not Socrates's only legacy. In NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 fd80a178-6a95-4f83-83ef-bfc12d7c653d 00:10:17.453 --> 00:10:20.837 fact, our discussion today isn't really even about NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 450868bc-16e2-42e5-a849-c8c9d8905977 00:10:20.837 --> 00:10:25.490 Socrates, but about one of his other students, Plato, who was NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 5e514ad9-0feb-4a38-86d8-752a3ce0b814 00:10:25.490 --> 00:10:29.720 Critias's cousin. This is really Plato's story. Nineteen years after NOTE Confidence: 0.8114017 3f678208-11ce-413a-9007-e1bfde3b15a2 00:10:29.720 --> 00:10:33.104 Socrates's execution, Plato would write the Republic. NOTE Confidence: 0.9003376 9edeadfc-1ac7-49fa-bfc7-165a90201b90 00:10:34.140 --> 00:10:38.088 And if we return to the Republic and open up the first pages of NOTE Confidence: 0.9003376 7c08e4ee-5023-46eb-97d0-77e5a723f087 00:10:38.088 --> 00:10:39.498 Book 1, where are we? NOTE Confidence: 0.85330254 4ad4c9e8-5680-451e-a8e5-006c310fc56c 00:10:40.300 --> 00:10:45.346 The Piraeus, the site of violence between the Spartans and NOTE Confidence: 0.85330254 16033761-893d-4de8-9071-702a29d4175f 00:10:45.346 --> 00:10:49.383 Athenians, the democrats and the 30. And who should we meet, NOTE Confidence: 0.85330254 c3fad090-c9dd-49bd-a491-4484caaad423 00:10:49.383 --> 00:10:50.484 but Polemarchus, NOTE Confidence: 0.2543313 329cc0f7-4000-4e82-9b64-33340ee4659d 00:10:51.300 --> 00:10:54.120 Socrates, and Cephalus, NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 2cac7d5c-fac0-44bc-990d-3be45d4e18f6 00:10:55.370 --> 00:10:58.910 all executed by an Athenian government? And what else should NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 2204e096-c0fd-424c-bf0a-6956f5d5b51a 00:10:58.910 --> 00:11:02.804 they be talking about, but justice and how it could benefit NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 7dbf9376-efce-4095-8251-4cf417ea4ef4 00:11:02.804 --> 00:11:08.114 or harm us in death and in life? And I'm sure many of you have NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 5f552841-a2c8-4497-8e47-5f826c325558 00:11:08.114 --> 00:11:11.300 noticed that Book 1 is incredibly difficult to read, NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 4b2434d1-d508-4268-b7eb-7a7da9b958f2 00:11:11.300 --> 00:11:15.194 and I've often wondered why Plato included Book 1 at all. NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 9cc5ff68-3c02-4b0b-9f98-2cb59bd95d1e 00:11:15.194 --> 00:11:19.796 After all, Plato will define justice in Book 4, so why not NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 3be576a4-4a46-4dcd-8aa8-cbadb5cb0484 00:11:19.796 --> 00:11:24.044 just tell us right away? Why go through all the attempted and NOTE Confidence: 0.8719994 9d5dff98-e376-4f74-8a17-35fdc91c9612 00:11:24.044 --> 00:11:25.814 failed definitions in Book 1? NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 3202ec31-87de-4b7d-94d3-f36b223cc994 00:11:26.180 --> 00:11:30.152 I think it's the toughest book, because Plato was trying to give NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 7009fffb-acf4-4946-adad-c93fb254d8a8 00:11:30.152 --> 00:11:34.786 us a tool box. He's trying to not only tell us what he thinks, NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 22f0b0ed-a2b0-4594-a657-0532a90fcb52 00:11:34.786 --> 00:11:38.427 but give us some suggestions about how we could engage his NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 a87b59c4-bce9-4334-95fc-1ee123a763b2 00:11:38.427 --> 00:11:42.399 views and maybe help him or criticize him. So there are a NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 94e76a7d-c6a5-4329-8be1-c178396b501f 00:11:42.399 --> 00:11:46.040 lot of philosophical methods and moves presented in Book 1, and NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 152f5f37-0ec9-48e7-837c-19e078739092 00:11:46.040 --> 00:11:50.012 that's why it's so tough. I'm going to focus on the payoff of NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 25f77ab0-74dc-45bd-bcd1-57c24f238899 00:11:50.012 --> 00:11:53.984 three of those methods today, and I'm going to apply them to NOTE Confidence: 0.8404548 6fc423c2-4ab8-4dc5-9b86-980750ecfacb 00:11:53.984 --> 00:11:55.970 the Greek notion of justice, dikaiosune, NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 56f4df4e-7d26-40af-b34d-ccf606475fbb 00:11:55.970 --> 00:12:00.260 which means something broader than what we mean by NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 2f1dc0ce-9d2e-4cd8-b4dc-0ad72398bc2e 00:12:00.260 --> 00:12:04.810 justice. We often think of the laws of the city, but dikaiosune NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 c3b80595-4a5a-456e-9e84-506ff74f6599 00:12:04.810 --> 00:12:09.010 means not just the laws of the city, but rightness and NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 bafc8e84-3e91-4eed-aa0e-258cd4e09ab2 00:12:09.010 --> 00:12:12.510 wrongness -- really, morality in general. I'm going to talk more NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 286b1917-47c7-4cb8-932d-ebed44259db3 00:12:12.510 --> 00:12:15.310 about how Plato investigates dikaiosune. We've already NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 a1f92471-97b5-4ce4-b726-35d12722e5b9 00:12:15.310 --> 00:12:18.460 looked at the first method: asking questions, what things NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 80cee4a8-0246-4f1d-8fc6-913ddcb7f326 00:12:18.460 --> 00:12:22.660 are and what things are good. The two other methods I'm going NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 e8e77f7e-5652-4381-b9ec-93918c1a6386 00:12:22.660 --> 00:12:26.510 to look at, are definitions and the question. what is justice; NOTE Confidence: 0.81605136 4a392041-4277-48dc-a5a0-95de1be9cb87 00:12:26.510 --> 00:12:27.560 and thought experiments, NOTE Confidence: 0.6115351 25e2decd-0d39-42b7-851c-3ee089aab8bc 00:12:27.660 --> 00:12:29.350 specifically, the Ring of Gyges. NOTE Confidence: 0.87345403 b46cce9a-a2ac-415f-954d-15016f41f45f 00:12:30.150 --> 00:12:34.040 So let's first look at definitions -- based on a true NOTE Confidence: 0.87345403 3d464d62-b51e-4aa6-8210-cea5e4488b35 00:12:34.040 --> 00:12:37.152 story, inspired by Professor Segrest of the English NOTE Confidence: 0.87345403 3125d239-a309-4239-b005-6793cfa6ae31 00:12:37.152 --> 00:12:41.820 Department, when last year he asked me if I had tried a NOTE Confidence: 0.8713456 a63f9978-9239-4499-81c0-61b6b2722923 00:12:41.820 --> 00:12:45.315 macchiato. And this prompted a very philosophical question: NOTE Confidence: 0.83934206 79c8e891-ac82-48ba-9ef9-dd9ebeda0624 00:12:45.980 --> 00:12:50.012 What is a macchiato? Now, let me ask you this: If you wanted to NOTE Confidence: 0.83934206 063e8c31-eccc-4412-a326-f8212065af4b 00:12:50.012 --> 00:12:51.740 know what a macchiato is, what NOTE Confidence: 0.873283 32dda4a0-c7ea-4637-9f7b-8f8936e4e280 00:12:51.740 --> 00:12:57.810 would you do? I know what I would do, and  it's likely NOTE Confidence: 0.873283 2e816b92-360f-4d86-9c20-24363a10b641 00:12:57.810 --> 00:13:02.922 that I would Google it. If I decided to Google "macchiato," the NOTE Confidence: 0.873283 a3b71809-7e6b-4e69-9e03-c0ed55f2298e 00:13:02.922 --> 00:13:08.034 the first result that Google offers me is from Wikipedia, and NOTE Confidence: 0.82644224 c4bdb6ac-0343-442c-8d35-3429777b1aa5 00:13:08.034 --> 00:13:09.860 Wikipedia tells us NOTE Confidence: 0.86116755 3690edc2-0d3e-4b9d-b188-a78fd93cb7c2 00:13:10.430 --> 00:13:13.870 that a "caffe macchiato, sometimes called espresso NOTE Confidence: 0.86116755 441f36d7-e70e-4e34-894e-f7a795fe6a3d 00:13:13.870 --> 00:13:18.170 macchiato, is an espresso coffee drink with a small amount of NOTE Confidence: 0.86116755 3553e582-d177-4614-9d6a-ca640dc11682 00:13:18.170 --> 00:13:22.900 milk, usually foamed." Looking things up on Google is a great NOTE Confidence: 0.86116755 dbc5bd9b-84d5-47ca-bff1-f5bcf1ff7e26 00:13:22.900 --> 00:13:27.200 strategy, but here's the tricky thing. NOTE Confidence: 0.87884194 b11f2890-5dbc-4cdf-9b07-3f8bb0d70152 00:13:27.790 --> 00:13:32.326 Wikipedia can be edited by a whole variety of people, NOTE Confidence: 0.87884194 441a9785-860c-4bca-a5c1-23d89fbe0598 00:13:32.326 --> 00:13:37.240 and if you look, you know, Google returns a lot of results NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 a442d39e-d74a-45f3-aa11-e58f49970f09 00:13:37.240 --> 00:13:41.458 about macchiatos. How do I know which one is authoritative? NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 c94489dc-b051-41e9-88d4-88efbabb1e6c 00:13:41.458 --> 00:13:45.370 How do I even know where this information is coming from? NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 f7eeca6f-6c57-4fee-b450-cd196bbaa80e 00:13:45.370 --> 00:13:48.956 One challenge of looking things up through Google or on the NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 fa05923c-b46a-44c8-84d1-9d17cc41a558 00:13:48.956 --> 00:13:52.216 Internet is just trying -- if you don't already know what NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 4f73adfe-36b4-40d3-8c7d-38cc672de8c1 00:13:52.216 --> 00:13:55.802 something is, it can be difficult to know exactly who to NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 bbb832a4-9891-4c99-a58a-8b89e4ac0a6a 00:13:55.802 --> 00:13:59.714 believe when you ask questions like this. And so one NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 39e3a3aa-6846-4894-856b-62cff53466d5 00:13:59.714 --> 00:14:04.278 thing you might do is go to a sort of trusted source -- if not NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 9db5338e-010b-4a77-a77f-cf5459870eb7 00:14:04.278 --> 00:14:06.886 Wikipedia, then maybe the dictionary, the Oxford English NOTE Confidence: 0.8741744 d9967aa4-2704-4d44-b3e7-5f552a74ceb8 00:14:06.886 --> 00:14:08.516 Dictionary. So here I've looked NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 d21e18c8-b0ec-48aa-bdd3-a52465c9392f 00:14:08.516 --> 00:14:11.340 up "macchiato" in the Oxford English Dictionary, and one NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 58df7ad2-df60-47c5-afef-ba5eb8cc04f1 00:14:11.340 --> 00:14:14.340 thing that's very helpful about the dictionary is that it'll NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 d4e6af9c-59c8-4e32-91da-a30b328e275e 00:14:14.340 --> 00:14:17.940 give you a sense of how most, you know, for example, English NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 474d3e10-c55c-4333-bbe1-322427c647ef 00:14:17.940 --> 00:14:21.840 speakers use a word. It's a type of a poll based on publication NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 90b75f49-74f2-420b-82e1-172af01374e5 00:14:21.840 --> 00:14:26.040 rates on how people use a word. And you might NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 e016074d-ee8a-42d3-90bc-3ffcd71d703a 00:14:26.040 --> 00:14:29.340 have wondered -- like, look, if there was just Google or a NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 cfc1a815-887b-4aa4-a84c-7ca1d384787a 00:14:29.340 --> 00:14:32.340 dictionary in ancient Greece, would the Republic have been a NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 505817ac-61b0-45f9-99e3-8d29ea7b21fd 00:14:32.340 --> 00:14:35.640 lot shorter? You know, Socrates says, "What is justice?" and they NOTE Confidence: 0.86395067 4800b830-a857-4eef-8182-da301c777e0b 00:14:35.640 --> 00:14:37.140 say, "Let's look it up." NOTE Confidence: 0.90601057 c68b355d-6c40-457d-91f1-19bfb12405b7 00:14:37.770 --> 00:14:41.586 And here's what's really fascinating. The answer is no. NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 1516f49d-f913-4ab3-bb00-4dec5cad1fb3 00:14:42.250 --> 00:14:45.490 A dictionary definition of justice will not satisfy NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 c9b9afdc-5e08-49da-a885-9a31bbe54a4a 00:14:45.490 --> 00:14:50.755 Socrates, and I want to show you why, by looking at the example NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 c6d9fb53-e494-4d75-b00e-53020d648398 00:14:50.755 --> 00:14:55.210 of a macchiato. So here is the dictionary definition of a NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 19e0b98d-d0dd-4cbb-b113-229fad906d91 00:14:55.210 --> 00:14:58.855 macchiato. It's "coffee, usually espresso, served with a small NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 8309bd3e-68e3-436d-a502-3a8bc1fe426f 00:14:58.855 --> 00:15:03.715 amount of hot or foamed steamed milk; a drink of this." Okay, NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 eb1a8ab3-7425-4fb5-a3e7-5926dfee6aa5 00:15:03.715 --> 00:15:07.765 great. So, armed with this definition of macchiato, I head NOTE Confidence: 0.8498316 ac55461e-6df6-4954-bcf4-17125601cd96 00:15:07.765 --> 00:15:11.815 over to my favorite local coffee shop and I order NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 e24b1c1a-d52d-42e3-9eed-85e29e79a5c2 00:15:12.280 --> 00:15:17.332 an espresso served with a small amount of hot or foamed milk. NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 1b4335b7-859b-44b1-bc27-5cccca2a5e59 00:15:17.332 --> 00:15:22.805 But this isn't actually going to get me a macchiato, and to help NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 04618fbc-d18d-4a03-a07a-1dc3f429ab4e 00:15:22.805 --> 00:15:27.857 explain why I've got this sort of diagram, of all of these NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 c47d1c27-a3ad-4049-aec7-b7dd13f62af8 00:15:27.857 --> 00:15:32.488 different espresso-based drinks, and if I just ask for espresso NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 d2539bb0-0f37-4fcc-a616-79bde4ef71c7 00:15:32.488 --> 00:15:37.540 and hot milk or foam, there's actually four drinks that meet that NOTE Confidence: 0.8636821 a329a6c8-9249-429d-8060-4d7ae6ecf222 00:15:37.540 --> 00:15:42.171 requirement. So we've got a flat white. We've got a cappuccino. NOTE Confidence: 0.8177827 ee5abc5c-3699-4294-a537-1724e205e0a6 00:15:42.590 --> 00:15:46.902 We've got a macchiato, all right, we've got a coffee NOTE Confidence: 0.8177827 e0a86791-9885-4b21-bcf2-617d808ef790 00:15:46.902 --> 00:15:50.822 latte, but there's too many drinks that meet this definition NOTE Confidence: 0.8177827 b19a543a-3216-4dc3-8149-16b33281cac0 00:15:50.822 --> 00:15:56.310 so far. So what I want is a way to separate out macchiatos from NOTE Confidence: 0.8177827 2285fffb-3015-4d22-8fc0-a05157e82ed1 00:15:56.310 --> 00:16:01.406 these other types of drinks. So I asked my local barista to give NOTE Confidence: 0.8177827 d0c93127-1aef-490a-9843-622fbb5aac41 00:16:01.406 --> 00:16:03.758 me a definition of a macchiato. NOTE Confidence: 0.9182163 9a979513-6664-4697-9e68-ce74374243e9 00:16:04.360 --> 00:16:05.690 And here's what they said: NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 b185a198-dbba-41cd-ba58-2c33d3371e26 00:16:08.170 --> 00:16:12.383 "It's espresso and a small amount of textured milk, mostly foam, NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 c7ad16b6-7765-4092-b898-7a627fc6bf61 00:16:12.383 --> 00:16:16.979 almost no steamed milk." And now that is a definition that can NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 d0a36328-bf38-4258-b8d8-a4a38df54146 00:16:16.979 --> 00:16:21.192 single out a macchiato from all of the other espresso-based NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 8edc84fb-1e9f-4c4c-98bf-1ca212bd49e7 00:16:21.192 --> 00:16:25.022 drinks. It distinguishes this drink from the rest, and a NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 b1192678-5e73-4dec-95d8-7b12d3c5ea21 00:16:25.022 --> 00:16:28.469 definition should give me an understanding like this, an NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 81d4abf7-ae69-47dc-84c9-b6f013af8982 00:16:28.469 --> 00:16:31.916 understanding of what a macchiato is, and that's what NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 09f39a53-8e4d-4995-8666-54c1276acbd7 00:16:31.916 --> 00:16:35.746 Socratic definition should do for us. It's more than telling NOTE Confidence: 0.85215944 4631fa7a-b081-4c5b-aee8-66294bfe1d25 00:16:35.746 --> 00:16:38.427 us how people might use a word. NOTE Confidence: 0.8862987 fee4c367-61c6-4231-b42f-9db139c61bed 00:16:38.520 --> 00:16:43.320 They help us understand the nature of something.  In Platonic NOTE Confidence: 0.85151607 8c288d89-c312-4dde-a3d9-c60caf37cd35 00:16:43.320 --> 00:16:49.140 terminology, it gives us an account of something, or a form. NOTE Confidence: 0.85151607 3e1abc5a-6ee3-4927-a51c-0a1723fef84d 00:16:49.140 --> 00:16:54.255 It explains what all examples have in common. It explains what NOTE Confidence: 0.85151607 bf27c6f4-4d25-4e2e-990e-93a47b84de46 00:16:54.255 --> 00:16:58.440 all macchiatos have in common that make them macchiatos. NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 6fafc4f1-9bf6-444a-bf94-04eea0231608 00:16:59.260 --> 00:17:03.020 So if you're wondering what all macchiatos have in common, NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 67a68fca-1eed-4094-a7f7-8d395f18d5df 00:17:03.020 --> 00:17:07.156 Plato's answer is that they share the form of macchiato, which NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 46161937-2961-4756-9412-ac816be72ae6 00:17:07.156 --> 00:17:10.916 means that they are all espresso with mostly foamed milk NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 5af780b3-6a29-463a-a044-197abbbca142 00:17:10.916 --> 00:17:15.052 and a little bit of steamed milk. And this also helps NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 d8fd69b0-3aab-4a68-b5d0-9c8155d8fdb6 00:17:15.052 --> 00:17:18.436 explain some of the strange terminology that you will NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 92bb3a24-7f0a-4596-bde7-947ae03b7cae 00:17:18.436 --> 00:17:21.820 encounter when reading the Republic. When Plato or Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.8436024 7eb03ba8-ceab-49e8-ab2d-209f55bdb49e 00:17:21.820 --> 00:17:25.956 is talking about "the form," he often talks about "what is." NOTE Confidence: 0.8788786 34a74a6a-f400-424e-88a0-26bdcb0a350c 00:17:26.710 --> 00:17:30.527 And then when Socrates is talking about the value of "what NOTE Confidence: 0.8788786 a123a267-bde0-4986-9aa2-0c2ed9cf7171 00:17:30.527 --> 00:17:34.691 is," what he's really talking about is the value of the form NOTE Confidence: 0.8788786 cf017f17-96e8-4838-9206-d523a8dec992 00:17:34.691 --> 00:17:38.161 or the full definition of something. And he contrasts this NOTE Confidence: 0.8788786 0c8fbfe4-a3cb-4699-9808-d1d599debb76 00:17:38.161 --> 00:17:41.978 with physical versions of things, and he often calls NOTE Confidence: 0.8788786 14bffced-3035-4c40-a23c-f12a460b2beb 00:17:41.978 --> 00:17:45.795 them "what is" and "what is not," precisely because they change. NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 30da42d2-0169-4ef5-aa2c-e9b53c5cb267 00:17:47.150 --> 00:17:52.484 So the form is the essence of what it is to be a macchiato, NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 99be5010-5daa-40fb-91b5-f20b486e521d 00:17:52.484 --> 00:17:55.913 and that doesn't change. But this world, and NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 ca79a189-f0c7-436d-8f6a-49f470769e58 00:17:55.913 --> 00:17:59.723 the macchiatos in it, do change. There was a time NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 1e1c6533-e8f3-4674-92fd-d558e5dc08a4 00:17:59.723 --> 00:18:03.533 before there were macchiatos, and there will likely be a NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 64511cc8-bd88-45b5-b91e-01cc555cc3bf 00:18:03.533 --> 00:18:07.343 time when there are no more macchiatos. This is what NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 73f4301d-8af6-43e9-a514-81a8ce453a8c 00:18:07.343 --> 00:18:11.534 Plato is interested in -- In what is, the natures of things, but NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 131dd83c-d67e-4789-af16-a159a6e48d70 00:18:11.534 --> 00:18:14.963 also the understanding that these afford. And that's what NOTE Confidence: 0.83517134 4cfaef3f-045d-4e20-bfc8-70fce20148a9 00:18:14.963 --> 00:18:16.868 transforms mere opinion into knowledge. NOTE Confidence: 0.83383566 9d4485ee-2c18-4c74-b481-28a7fc110297 00:18:18.880 --> 00:18:23.962 Socrates asks in Book 7, "Did it ever seem to you, that those who NOTE Confidence: 0.83383566 bd8fd2bd-badf-4e91-9d51-17ebadc284ad 00:18:23.962 --> 00:18:27.955 can neither give nor follow an account know anything NOTE Confidence: 0.83383566 2c3b4a09-4574-437f-af8f-ec87a331020c 00:18:27.955 --> 00:18:32.311 at all of the things they must know?" And Glaucon replies that NOTE Confidence: 0.83383566 8b70aebe-3287-4375-a341-15094380050d 00:18:32.311 --> 00:18:33.763 his answer is no. NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 887eebcd-883b-48e4-8679-c3c45da77aa7 00:18:34.380 --> 00:18:37.872 What elevates opinion to knowledge is that NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 61e873ea-0a8e-4b1a-8aaa-ebfd21243e7d 00:18:37.872 --> 00:18:41.364 opinion is just about physical examples, but what knowledge NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 9091a21f-1cb0-4dfe-8d4a-60eea280e812 00:18:41.364 --> 00:18:45.244 does, what the form does, it offers a deeper understanding NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 4014c931-7fec-4017-b522-d41ba976c543 00:18:45.244 --> 00:18:49.900 into what those examples have in common. So, this gives us NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 114afa24-7c7f-42cc-beb5-502efb6615aa 00:18:49.900 --> 00:18:53.392 initial answers into Professor Range's two questions. What are NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 b232b9c9-1764-469d-b080-ff41c44923c4 00:18:53.392 --> 00:18:57.272 the things which must be accounted for? The natures of NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 151389a3-9a57-473a-ad84-4c702c8e2e75 00:18:57.272 --> 00:19:02.316 things, what is (the forms). And, how do we give an account? We NOTE Confidence: 0.8695749 b10a569c-d886-402b-bb2d-f0d3a4aafe9f 00:19:02.316 --> 00:19:04.256 get knowledge of the forms. NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 229a90c5-97d8-41a1-afab-475d7558c0fc 00:19:04.620 --> 00:19:09.703 So I wanted to give you a sense then of what's so interesting NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 9d8d1ade-8c74-4ab3-933e-5e97e26b09de 00:19:09.703 --> 00:19:13.222 about asking for a proper Socratic definition of justice. NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 bdd371aa-5efc-455c-800c-0ad7d026d892 00:19:13.222 --> 00:19:16.741 We might be familiar with Socratic definitions, especially NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 7d9b57d3-d27b-4165-8043-bb3a8d409a91 00:19:16.741 --> 00:19:19.478 in mathematics. Mathematicians offer very precise definitions. NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 56fd4a7e-5c9c-47c4-ac6d-5bdd0b52400b 00:19:19.478 --> 00:19:22.606 I'll never encounter a perfect physical manifestation NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 f5be857d-9ce5-4336-beea-f891f6c8f7ff 00:19:22.606 --> 00:19:27.689 of a circle, but I do know the definition of a perfect circle, NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 39c882ba-2909-43b4-834d-b504107b5a8c 00:19:27.689 --> 00:19:31.990 and that can sometimes help me better recognize round things in NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 f92fa464-ff61-4ed7-aa5f-4e2ac95a995f 00:19:31.990 --> 00:19:36.291 the world. And so what's so interesting about asking for a NOTE Confidence: 0.88279474 988ca443-abd1-45a6-beee-7cfa326f4b88 00:19:36.291 --> 00:19:37.464 definition of justice NOTE Confidence: 0.8074995 889f424e-87ab-47d7-954e-898d413e59b3 00:19:37.540 --> 00:19:42.622 is that Plato is looking for the Socratic definition of justice. NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 ed08b048-540a-4f96-9574-8bf604b5899e 00:19:42.622 --> 00:19:47.718 Plato is suggesting that we can look for forms of other NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 25489762-f74a-477c-bce1-f511f6f3af21 00:19:47.718 --> 00:19:51.656 things. In Book 10, Plato says that tables and chairs have NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 a7a9951e-33f0-4465-a826-3859eedfe579 00:19:51.656 --> 00:19:54.878 forms. I've argued that macchiatos have forms, and so NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 9780f9d0-4a52-46e5-982b-8a7223be5894 00:19:54.878 --> 00:19:58.100 what's so interesting about asking for a definition of NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 8d0b3883-4c52-4f8f-992f-362a34521c77 00:19:58.100 --> 00:20:02.396 justice is it suggests there might be a form of justice. If NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 3b40d518-3dc4-4397-afbd-0f2e6c5da6e8 00:20:02.396 --> 00:20:07.408 justice has a form, then we can give a definition of it. We can NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 29be71de-4312-45d6-8e96-51042d67f7e1 00:20:07.408 --> 00:20:10.988 have knowledge of it. We can make progress in our NOTE Confidence: 0.8599334 bdf21f99-9ca5-4c63-81d6-8aa9c56d37e6 00:20:10.988 --> 00:20:14.568 understanding of it, and it means that we can understand NOTE Confidence: 0.8641359 0397aad8-93d3-43b2-bfd3-c1443ee3784d 00:20:14.670 --> 00:20:20.318 morality.  So often we distinguish values from facts, NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 202e6250-fee9-4ffa-87a9-a115b783ddbd 00:20:21.180 --> 00:20:25.176 where facts are things we can be right or wrong about and NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 0929ce0e-a74d-4f05-8e35-79ede6a4029a 00:20:25.176 --> 00:20:28.173 values are something that are subjective, relative to each NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 bbe7785c-bf74-4c83-87aa-0f0b7fdeb929 00:20:28.173 --> 00:20:30.837 individual, and we cannot really disagree about. What NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 adb24ee7-8251-4ba9-a9cb-28e7e5218fbb 00:20:30.837 --> 00:20:34.167 Plato was telling us through Socrates is that there are NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 3df0911b-65da-4300-9a08-5aeb51be1dd2 00:20:34.167 --> 00:20:37.164 facts about value, and that's an interesting endeavour. How NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 f96ecfcf-3afc-4633-bb82-54e31dc54bc5 00:20:37.164 --> 00:20:41.160 do we get knowledge about morality, and how do we use it to NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 504ae1a0-cb91-49ff-9e21-a3c8b9ad9ca6 00:20:41.160 --> 00:20:44.157 recognize what's just and what's not just? And that's NOTE Confidence: 0.86671495 0e3f83a1-0cc1-4119-ab12-ca7cc144a30b 00:20:44.157 --> 00:20:46.821 one of the central goals of the Republic: NOTE Confidence: 0.8528125 e123fb79-d113-41e7-87d2-b1abd8992fd2 00:20:48.370 --> 00:20:53.844 facts about value. But, for all that, we get to the end of Book 1,  NOTE Confidence: 0.8528125 a429ff37-9330-45d9-b93b-cb685c294b95 00:20:53.844 --> 00:20:58.536 and Socrates is having a rough go of it. Socrates says, NOTE Confidence: 0.8528125 0eede006-2d56-4b95-ba49-25f9c9483191 00:20:58.536 --> 00:21:02.446 "Hence the result of the discussion," which in our version NOTE Confidence: 0.8528125 cde4d09e-65a4-4ac5-a5c5-7371e4f072ed 00:21:02.446 --> 00:21:04.792 of the book took 31 pages,  NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 347683c1-8ca3-4879-b61e-3d861e8ff383 00:21:05.420 --> 00:21:09.844 "as far as I'm concerned, is that I know nothing, for when I don't NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 b788a90e-5444-466f-8ea2-2c674c5bd1ec 00:21:09.844 --> 00:21:13.952 know what justice is, I'll hardly know whether it is a kind of NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 77a7b0c1-1ac3-450f-8693-6cd6c10122f2 00:21:13.952 --> 00:21:18.060 virtue or not, or whether a person who has it is happy or NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 c5236e79-3253-4a49-905c-33029502d6cd 00:21:18.060 --> 00:21:22.800 unhappy." So we get to the end of Book 1, and we NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 70cb4b66-74af-4a29-8372-7d70355ebf73 00:21:22.800 --> 00:21:25.960 don't have a definition of justice, and we don't know NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 f097826c-e67f-4ff1-87c5-59c3f8accd66 00:21:25.960 --> 00:21:30.068 whether justice is good or not. And I think this is a really NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 73661a4e-3194-4021-84fc-ce800b969d32 00:21:30.068 --> 00:21:32.912 familiar experience.  When I'm talking about ethics, when I'm NOTE Confidence: 0.8872755 5bee6afa-223c-4f64-b7f6-7acf662f8863 00:21:32.912 --> 00:21:36.704 teaching ethics in class, you kind of get to a point where NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 31ba654e-6239-41d8-bf9c-6fd1c378b65e 00:21:36.704 --> 00:21:40.800 you think, "Look, okay, okay, I'm going to commit myself to this NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 3888336a-7b48-48cd-8edd-2abbcc8c343d 00:21:40.800 --> 00:21:44.430 idea that we could get answers to questions about justice." But NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 2255817f-31ed-4026-96b5-59f1b3566eca 00:21:44.430 --> 00:21:49.050 once you get to that point, what do you do next? If I don't NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 4d173409-1554-452c-b5fd-73310cc77b29 00:21:49.050 --> 00:21:52.680 already know what justice is, then how do I proceed? What's NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 d28168b9-facf-46fe-8738-ca5f0b97d1ac 00:21:52.680 --> 00:21:56.310 the methodology? Where do I get data? How can I convince NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 890664c9-b157-4fe9-8275-5b903a10198d 00:21:56.310 --> 00:22:00.270 someone who disagrees with me? What are the methods we can use NOTE Confidence: 0.8766127 47d65ea1-5b48-4e9a-b5b3-04c52ca6cc24 00:22:00.270 --> 00:22:01.920 to get knowledge about morality? NOTE Confidence: 0.88634855 fe1617a1-77a3-4564-8d58-931144deaeab 00:22:03.110 --> 00:22:07.358 So the question here really is, how? How do we get knowledge NOTE Confidence: 0.88634855 75944db4-4bc6-402c-8ee9-dbaf5445d5d8 00:22:07.358 --> 00:22:11.252 about morality? And Plato is going to give us a suggestion: NOTE Confidence: 0.88634855 186aeb9c-7f0e-4836-a1cc-2a304d9751aa 00:22:11.252 --> 00:22:11.960 thought experiments. NOTE Confidence: 0.86933696 d14b8ed0-f3ac-4b03-91c8-a7367a0d5bbb 00:22:13.320 --> 00:22:16.320 So let's have a look at this third method, thought NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 3f513f47-fa25-4a0c-a414-7e8e33408d70 00:22:16.320 --> 00:22:20.049 experiments. And I want to look specifically at the Ring of NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 2c7ade71-f95d-444e-8a8a-a2f639130378 00:22:20.049 --> 00:22:24.123 Gyges. Before I do that, I want to have a closer look at what NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 f99391c2-6f7b-4fed-8774-f16e3e79d6f4 00:22:24.123 --> 00:22:27.033 thought experiments are. So I've included this cartoon, which I NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 ca34036d-f073-4d14-bc3b-1e51005e6332 00:22:27.033 --> 00:22:30.234 think is supposed to be funny, but I don't even necessarily NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 aef3c949-a234-4655-9590-1238a4f3fe04 00:22:30.234 --> 00:22:33.726 think it's funny. I just think that it's true. All right, so here NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 32d9d131-fdbc-42bf-8b00-95fd79d498ee 00:22:33.726 --> 00:22:37.509 we've got two gentlemen, and one of them says to the other one, NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 df70d2e1-c2a3-48e8-8d3f-7bf280644baa 00:22:37.509 --> 00:22:40.419 "Since you conduct only thought experiments, we were NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 c05652ec-4dc5-45dd-ac2b-e6999f5444da 00:22:40.419 --> 00:22:43.911 hoping that from time to time, you would come up with some NOTE Confidence: 0.86508137 d24ecb21-679b-458d-9bca-81ca92c11643 00:22:43.911 --> 00:22:47.112 thought results." I think that this is a helpful reminder that when NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 d491253e-ca72-4bc5-bfee-ee62d363ae45 00:22:47.112 --> 00:22:49.495 we're considering thought experiments and imagined NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 16ec7600-3367-4a40-b68a-c946099e7f03 00:22:49.495 --> 00:22:53.224 scenarios that there's more to it than just thinking about the NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 5eece0bc-c7da-423d-8ee7-347afd7d5890 00:22:53.224 --> 00:22:56.953 details.  There can be real conclusions that we draw from them. NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 2ab793e7-bbf3-4cfc-bd72-e2ac78bbfd28 00:22:56.953 --> 00:23:02.038 And I want to have a closer look at exactly how to do that, how NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 dd5146a5-d5a6-43f4-86c8-07955e70cdd5 00:23:02.038 --> 00:23:04.750 to use imagined hypothetical scenarios about what's possible NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 82b9edf9-5af1-430f-973a-ad4041ed144f 00:23:04.750 --> 00:23:08.818 to give us information about the actual.  And so what I recommend NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 827511ff-ec71-455f-bed9-e2dea4e7bd0a 00:23:08.818 --> 00:23:12.208 is that every time you encounter a thought experiment, NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 2991197d-9219-4996-ba9a-084f8e859dd5 00:23:12.208 --> 00:23:15.598 you do the following three things. First, you imagine the NOTE Confidence: 0.88643557 eb14f88f-7833-4a67-bc33-b2f21514c3c3 00:23:15.598 --> 00:23:17.971 relevant scenario. You run through its details. NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 9e2cc74e-c10a-4cb6-858b-d0419512c175 00:23:18.080 --> 00:23:23.060 It's always good to go back and look at the specific details. NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 23d4db3b-c805-416c-985f-884e246c7ab7 00:23:23.060 --> 00:23:27.625 Second, I want you to think through what the results are. NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 218599cf-aea9-498c-9941-6ea59fc4f8b7 00:23:27.625 --> 00:23:31.360 And that will often involve forming opinions about NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 f9536e68-10b5-44fb-b464-490bb05e8dcc 00:23:31.360 --> 00:23:35.925 ideas or what one should do given the relevant details. And NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 18fa0a23-4e58-4ca7-864a-fd10f070fcc1 00:23:35.925 --> 00:23:40.075 the third thing is to think about the results. Draw NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 091b2121-3bef-4659-b3a6-7ff7c04a68d9 00:23:40.075 --> 00:23:42.565 conclusions, the implications -- which results NOTE Confidence: 0.8818805 9c8d81a8-b8a2-4a2d-8fd2-fb97c11a4ef1 00:23:42.565 --> 00:23:43.810 matter and why. NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 5bda8799-c1ca-49b7-bd3a-5918e0b8eca1 00:23:44.650 --> 00:23:48.247 Let's go through these three steps with respect to the Ring NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 e7f1323f-1802-4105-8dcb-6ecb5aa900c5 00:23:48.247 --> 00:23:53.152 of Gyges. So in Book 2 of the Republic, we get to the Ring of NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 2c9ce430-5a22-46d9-9bd8-8a89e35e5a6d 00:23:53.152 --> 00:23:57.076 Gyges, which asks you to imagine that there is a ring of NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 559ff116-a4f7-4e12-93d4-9f0e335253e9 00:23:57.076 --> 00:24:00.346 invisibility. So let's follow my own advice. First, imagine the NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 68aa6296-2f5a-4356-a595-24f4845da439 00:24:00.346 --> 00:24:04.270 relevant scenario. Gyges is a shepherd who, in a cave, finds a NOTE Confidence: 0.8320129 d148985f-a965-48ea-b040-5b475874c7ca 00:24:04.270 --> 00:24:05.578 ring on a corpse. NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 e409f254-7d27-4191-baff-9d3b5be606a5 00:24:06.190 --> 00:24:10.516 He takes the ring, he puts it on, he turns it, and when he NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 4874c2a7-62f5-4a51-b63d-22375b48c4d2 00:24:10.516 --> 00:24:13.915 does, he becomes invisible. He realizes that he can get away NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 c0c1d49b-afd4-489d-a064-aa622e2e6f6b 00:24:13.915 --> 00:24:17.623 with a lot of things when he's invisible. He can help himself NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 e90b270b-014a-4fd3-a1b6-19fee52dbac3 00:24:17.623 --> 00:24:21.022 and serve his own interests at the expense of others without NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 62a3ff0a-ed50-403e-97d2-2683ea3b8501 00:24:21.022 --> 00:24:24.421 ever getting caught. So what does he do? He trespasses, he NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 2d9a0364-f362-42bb-b4d8-ee9e27743768 00:24:24.421 --> 00:24:27.820 steals, and he murders -- to help himself. So those are the NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 34ddf4ba-07fb-4ff6-91b6-16215836a0d1 00:24:27.820 --> 00:24:32.146 relevant details. So now we can move on to Step 2. What are the NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 8aaa7e2f-1c5f-4ef0-a1e3-f36ce6847c4f 00:24:32.146 --> 00:24:35.236 results? And this is actually a really interesting question. One NOTE Confidence: 0.8793907 989ef66d-8a20-4348-8b4a-d098902ba930 00:24:35.236 --> 00:24:38.635 thing that you might do is imagine what you yourself would NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 e1a4ee9f-2fac-45ae-adbf-b17707a47378 00:24:38.635 --> 00:24:42.232 do in this scenario. And maybe you did that in class, thinking NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 30bd9d64-5f26-4d5b-8731-32397ad3b157 00:24:42.232 --> 00:24:45.444 more about a ring of invisibility and what you would NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 7ec43aa5-5444-4764-bcca-dc73c8118e3a 00:24:45.444 --> 00:24:49.532 do with it. In my experience, a lot of people just would just NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 ad169cbf-a482-4c00-b5ce-32316c3eff50 00:24:49.532 --> 00:24:51.868 like stop wearing clothing, depending on whether NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 387d6aa6-11e5-46a3-b36d-ed03a0ccd2f8 00:24:51.868 --> 00:24:55.372 it's the summer or the winter time. And this does have the NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 e6ae3191-67a0-4295-93a7-c5343a7d024d 00:24:55.372 --> 00:24:58.876 power to teach us things about ourselves. You know, am I really NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 5b73a4af-d3a2-4bdd-afdf-565398af343f 00:24:58.876 --> 00:25:02.088 committed to my principles of justice if no one will know NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 6f3e2eb2-1c93-498a-9667-e1116f019462 00:25:02.088 --> 00:25:05.884 whether I follow them through or not? And so, is this the result NOTE Confidence: 0.86262095 310a7903-0f8c-4469-bd81-2a64b6194993 00:25:05.884 --> 00:25:09.096 that Plato -- is Plato trying to teach us each something about NOTE Confidence: 0.8990766 e3c1a33e-d3ef-4653-86ed-e5f45a47d3b6 00:25:09.096 --> 00:25:12.113 ourselves? Is this the helpful result for thinking about the NOTE Confidence: 0.8990766 9c3e7340-317c-49fa-b5d6-8fb5fa99154b 00:25:12.113 --> 00:25:14.696 Republic? And what's so interesting is that the answer NOTE Confidence: 0.8990766 ad19053c-d800-4a57-b68e-5178a8837bf6 00:25:14.696 --> 00:25:16.705 is no. And the reason that you NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 4940e2b5-5693-460d-a3db-3dce7d2d42ed 00:25:16.705 --> 00:25:21.260 can tell that is that we can have a look at what Glaucon NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 afb7a041-54fb-470e-8d9e-bc48c5f2d0a3 00:25:21.260 --> 00:25:24.992 says: "This, some would say, is great proof that one is never NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 e2c6bfe9-4dc2-4908-a80c-d1509b91c55b 00:25:24.992 --> 00:25:28.413 just willingly but only when compelled to be." Glaucon draws NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 79edf47a-b5fb-45cf-8ec2-9ca21d2ec51f 00:25:28.413 --> 00:25:32.145 a conclusion about people in general, not just you or me or NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 6ae7612c-6b70-4b24-acca-ba32bdc2c21f 00:25:32.145 --> 00:25:35.566 him, but people in general. He suggests: look, you would be NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 21f359bc-5554-4148-9b33-5f530fca880a 00:25:35.566 --> 00:25:39.298 willing to be unjust with the ring of Gyges, and you are NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 7f441a83-6be8-4369-94b2-830c153f3b6b 00:25:39.298 --> 00:25:42.408 sufficiently like other people, then maybe most people would be NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 f69c57eb-2eb6-41e4-a03a-1c634768b571 00:25:42.408 --> 00:25:46.451 unjust if they had a ring of Gyges. Now that's a really NOTE Confidence: 0.82657737 31c990fe-fa47-4bde-a181-86efef1def5a 00:25:46.451 --> 00:25:47.695 interesting result. It's a NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 d2f99de3-2ace-4562-baad-990f64164121 00:25:47.695 --> 00:25:52.520 prediction about what people in general, if everyone had a ring NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 d86269cc-ea3d-4d20-b1b9-8866b38283bd 00:25:52.520 --> 00:25:57.250 of Gyges, what statistically most people would do.  Now, is that NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 3e7c2686-4270-41a9-b3d6-c435fff8d4bb 00:25:57.250 --> 00:26:01.550 the interesting result of the Republic? No, it isn't actually. NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 345c0a8f-ddc4-435b-9887-804abcabce03 00:26:01.550 --> 00:26:06.710 Glaucon goes on. He says, "for someone who didn't want to do NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 ba80d459-0aa1-4598-8560-c84ab9be260a 00:26:06.710 --> 00:26:10.150 injustice, given this opportunity, and who didn't touch NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 b69ae7ad-c283-47ed-9d76-64b94b8934a8 00:26:10.150 --> 00:26:14.450 other people's property, would be thought wretched and stupid by NOTE Confidence: 0.8377779 a90d1479-ed4c-4513-bf09-07f7dd0018f1 00:26:14.450 --> 00:26:18.750 everyone aware of the situation." The first comment that Glaucon NOTE Confidence: 0.90294087 d94a27db-e49a-4d54-a3bd-dbf09a01dc45 00:26:18.750 --> 00:26:23.063 makes is a description about our psychology, what we do,  NOTE Confidence: 0.90294087 a273dc1f-f7a9-406e-8bd4-149de8c1e235 00:26:23.063 --> 00:26:27.233 what people in general do. But the second description NOTE Confidence: 0.90294087 305d4271-511f-4d97-8518-772c4e6833d1 00:26:27.233 --> 00:26:31.820 is actually about morality, what people should do. It's not just NOTE Confidence: 0.90294087 69088273-80f0-4537-bbae-2807aa4a45c5 00:26:31.820 --> 00:26:36.824 about what people will in fact do, but what we think people NOTE Confidence: 0.90294087 3ee26431-ccbb-43f1-bf30-90671d64a3ca 00:26:36.824 --> 00:26:38.492 should do given that situation. NOTE Confidence: 0.81354403 bb4f65f4-6e91-49cc-b359-e9f06924ec20 00:26:38.620 --> 00:26:42.540 Glaucon is revisiting Thrasymachus's point: If you NOTE Confidence: 0.81354403 4822e86d-915f-4d2f-8d27-494fa7d97d1e 00:26:42.540 --> 00:26:47.244 can really get what you want and help yourself without facing the NOTE Confidence: 0.81354403 a31d68f9-82f0-4968-a4ec-0548340ce326 00:26:47.244 --> 00:26:51.556 consequences, then you are being irrational if you don't.  That NOTE Confidence: 0.81354403 d4f61546-0999-4439-af3c-698cfa904eaf 00:26:51.556 --> 00:26:54.692 was Thrasymachus's challenge, and that's the NOTE Confidence: 0.81354403 a938b589-21de-48bc-bfae-16d58e6d88c0 00:26:54.692 --> 00:26:58.220 question that Socrates needs to answer in the Republic. NOTE Confidence: 0.7468042 1c1e86e2-8537-45fa-a9b2-8c921abb9e8c 00:26:59.020 --> 00:27:03.232 Now I want to make one more point about the Ring of Gyges, NOTE Confidence: 0.7468042 def2e436-83a0-4caa-81e5-14ef06987af4 00:27:03.232 --> 00:27:06.796 and it's that it's not Socrates that gives the NOTE Confidence: 0.7468042 9355978c-0efd-4eea-867b-51fa407e3068 00:27:06.796 --> 00:27:08.740 example of the ring of Gyges, NOTE Confidence: 0.87083256 c78c7d77-4d62-4c22-bb22-b4a03e54992c 00:27:08.740 --> 00:27:13.582 it's Glaucon. And so, why is that so interesting? So what NOTE Confidence: 0.87083256 25baab85-82b2-41e3-89bf-3da09b2d0ca6 00:27:13.582 --> 00:27:17.562 I've done here is, I've included an image, a 13th NOTE Confidence: 0.87083256 64bb62ad-0f97-4c92-98da-e37fb02b6122 00:27:17.562 --> 00:27:21.542 century image of Socrates and Plato from a Benedictine monk. NOTE Confidence: 0.87083256 8704b90a-c200-4fb9-bf5d-080532ad52c8 00:27:21.542 --> 00:27:25.522 And in this image we've got, here, we've got Socrates, NOTE Confidence: 0.82838535 b4178711-d7d7-4792-b526-2be58abc2d80 00:27:27.210 --> 00:27:31.458 who's writing, and Plato over his shoulder who's telling NOTE Confidence: 0.82838535 a40d3470-121f-4692-ba2c-f108a7e08937 00:27:31.458 --> 00:27:33.346 him what to write. NOTE Confidence: 0.8664372 da8516e8-38a4-4b0f-ae0b-9b71c70fa694 00:27:35.040 --> 00:27:39.490 And what's so fascinating about this is that it's backwards. NOTE Confidence: 0.8664372 e5d79f74-e4f3-41f7-8569-af59d20ae919 00:27:39.490 --> 00:27:41.270 Socrates never wrote anything. NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 428a4994-f8a9-4063-947b-271fca027563 00:27:42.310 --> 00:27:46.952 And Socrates was Plato's mentor. Part of what this image reminds NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 7d755874-ddf1-49ce-b171-0bc1e9456d13 00:27:46.952 --> 00:27:52.016 us of is that Socrates, in a sense, is a mouthpiece for Plato, that NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 b544c027-b785-4a20-b620-572192df764e 00:27:52.016 --> 00:27:56.658 in some sense it's not really Socrates's voice, it's NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 6328200e-d772-416c-936a-6628e52c3373 00:27:56.658 --> 00:28:00.456 Plato's. But there's something even more misleading about this NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 89ce2e91-6f41-4010-9213-f6d4c59e128a 00:28:00.456 --> 00:28:04.676 image, because it's not just Socrates that's the voice of NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 29e832a8-92d8-492f-94e3-3487e77039d2 00:28:04.676 --> 00:28:08.474 Plato, but all of the interlocutors that are the NOTE Confidence: 0.8028056 b4c867f4-0210-48dd-8588-98f750e022c7 00:28:08.474 --> 00:28:13.116 voices of Plato. Socrates is, but so is Glaucon, NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 e3231037-ff1b-4231-bd64-bad6e0703050 00:28:13.470 --> 00:28:16.490 so is Adeimantus, so is Thrasymachus. What's so interesting NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 73b10401-086f-4dfa-9965-362b63b81943 00:28:16.490 --> 00:28:19.510 about a dialogue is that Plato doesn't have to represent NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 abbf62a4-da97-47da-af6d-75d91179d50d 00:28:19.510 --> 00:28:23.436 himself in any one voice -- they are all his voice.  And he can NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 6dcf923e-667f-4384-ac00-0b3e06576028 00:28:23.436 --> 00:28:26.456 genuinely represent what it's like to be conflicted by an NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 b9bbfe16-b21e-4496-8aa2-535fe63301c2 00:28:26.456 --> 00:28:30.986 issue.  You know: "Look, I want to be just. Do I really have a NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 fc4f1090-21c9-4f21-8a0b-c60fdc8a2999 00:28:30.986 --> 00:28:34.912 reason? I don't know. Let me try showing it." Another way to think NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 d2965a5b-30fa-4f21-8c14-c2926f63ad8a 00:28:34.912 --> 00:28:38.838 about it is that Plato is giving us the opportunity to see the NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 4f826b65-d703-4c84-840f-1b95102a741c 00:28:38.838 --> 00:28:41.858 strongest version of an argument against his view, and he's NOTE Confidence: 0.85660225 01015533-99c9-4de6-8c6b-e590f700c790 00:28:41.858 --> 00:28:43.670 setting us up with a compelling, NOTE Confidence: 0.8026744 0e4ce322-a14f-45f1-a723-3a121d21f1c1 00:28:43.820 --> 00:28:47.268 clear, difficult set of opponents. So it's interesting NOTE Confidence: 0.8026744 29be1dd9-c7e1-4c0c-885c-02c26e5a7cb3 00:28:47.268 --> 00:28:50.716 that this is Glaucon's contribution. It's a reminder NOTE Confidence: 0.8026744 bc64cf08-6fb8-4536-a2f7-1a602525b378 00:28:50.716 --> 00:28:52.871 that it's not just about NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 e1c21ad8-7160-44aa-a3f4-7944d8f07287 00:28:52.871 --> 00:28:58.546 Socrates. So let's return to the question of what is justice, and NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 197d01f2-bcc3-4e2d-a93c-3493eb34dff1 00:28:58.546 --> 00:29:03.122 where I want to start is the Oxford English Dictionary. Let NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 212972a0-c5ce-4e55-9178-c3c6653163e9 00:29:03.122 --> 00:29:08.530 me read the first part. It's the "maintenance of what is just or NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 50fd0b72-0b32-4b00-897d-f096336994b8 00:29:08.530 --> 00:29:13.106 right by the exercise of authority or power." Is this a NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 435ca89c-b748-4d23-be41-a0144c25daad 00:29:13.106 --> 00:29:17.682 good definition of justice? No, because it is probably NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 6627e525-0111-4a2b-9c5d-e0d54ff03603 00:29:17.682 --> 00:29:21.842 true that justice involves the exercise of power. It doesn't NOTE Confidence: 0.8769647 d54aac28-2fbf-4e42-aa61-a51c34bdaf8d 00:29:21.842 --> 00:29:23.506 actually help us understand NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 d44fd7a1-71b7-4d2a-ae2b-ab2791745ccc 00:29:23.506 --> 00:29:27.350 justice any better, though, because it uses the word "just" to NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 9f09681a-5a19-4e83-9021-1a5cfe781268 00:29:27.350 --> 00:29:32.040 help define "justice." So we can see that if I ask what is NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 82a59de9-7668-432a-8761-462c91009e7a 00:29:32.040 --> 00:29:35.725 justice, telling me it's the maintenance of what is just or NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 343daedc-dbdc-41c7-b44d-2dd4cbd3fa7c 00:29:35.725 --> 00:29:39.075 right by the exercise of authority or power isn't going NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 e572dfcc-7c3f-4fbb-a825-e7753fe28c55 00:29:39.075 --> 00:29:43.095 to help me figure out what justice is if I don't already NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 3eb886df-036c-4249-9f4e-725a207b123e 00:29:43.095 --> 00:29:47.450 know. So we can look at the third part of the definition too, NOTE Confidence: 0.88128287 0ccc5d41-c9be-4a98-b3a5-ce0c7393a6ed 00:29:47.450 --> 00:29:49.125 "the giving of due deserts." NOTE Confidence: 0.8287654 a39b51bf-33e0-4af9-b8d0-b6b9915c8d27 00:29:50.090 --> 00:29:54.250 And I hope that that reminds you of a definition that you've seen NOTE Confidence: 0.8287654 4b7cd3f3-9051-4244-ae97-dd1593f5ea1a 00:29:54.250 --> 00:29:57.770 before, from Cephalus in Book 1, who says that justice is NOTE Confidence: 0.8287654 7a8e45fb-ec88-441c-9bb3-827a23f6f02f 00:29:57.770 --> 00:30:01.610 giving what is owed and telling the truth. And I think seeing NOTE Confidence: 0.8287654 ba58c157-919c-49c1-9568-c5231c9b3fe7 00:30:01.610 --> 00:30:04.170 why Cephalus's definition didn't work out is really instructive NOTE Confidence: 0.8287654 9491ba23-afff-4dbd-9d9a-6c8de6545cef 00:30:04.170 --> 00:30:06.090 for when we get to Plato's NOTE Confidence: 0.76261526 9cc14272-0d9e-4628-9d2b-7f610031878e 00:30:06.090 --> 00:30:11.038 definition. So what was wrong with Cephalus's definition? Well, NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 4eb9e538-41c6-41b2-80e7-90cfccd50214 00:30:11.920 --> 00:30:15.832 Socrates points out, if we take returning what is owed as always NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 56445ee0-0d36-47dd-8d53-970801413b94 00:30:15.832 --> 00:30:18.766 just, then sometimes unjust actions are good. And the NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 b9c7e736-72f3-4e2f-92df-3fe5c6316866 00:30:18.766 --> 00:30:22.678 example he gives is that, suppose you borrow a weapon from a NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 13485780-e178-4e7b-a7d5-e75c9ba4ff50 00:30:22.678 --> 00:30:26.264 friend, and he says, "Look, you wouldn't return that weapon if NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 9639b5ba-b33d-4a38-964e-97eb0cf3e44e 00:30:26.264 --> 00:30:30.176 if your friend wasn't in their right mind." And I don't know NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 e194af2c-618e-4c1c-afd0-401dedccaf56 00:30:30.176 --> 00:30:33.762 about you, but maybe this example didn't get a lot of NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 5ba2fd23-e049-4ac4-b13d-1c7234e146bf 00:30:33.762 --> 00:30:37.348 traction with you. So I want you to imagine something different. NOTE Confidence: 0.8777622 24bfe991-9969-4a8c-be8c-155ee4d6ad27 00:30:37.348 --> 00:30:41.260 Imagine that you borrow your friend's car, and when you go to NOTE Confidence: 0.8966588 8752963d-d5bd-471b-bdb7-7af85b2c117a 00:30:41.260 --> 00:30:45.537 return it, they've had too much to drink and want to drive it. NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 8522300e-b67b-4542-aae7-de831f61359c 00:30:46.160 --> 00:30:50.228 And part of what Socrates is pointing out in a scenario like NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 2be119e1-801d-47f5-9ef1-c2d5bd5bff6b 00:30:50.228 --> 00:30:54.635 this is, look, is the just thing, even though it's their car, is NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 b541b5c3-941e-4a37-8c2b-62936b374287 00:30:54.635 --> 00:30:59.042 the just thing to give it back to them in that moment? And NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 6dafb05f-b6e4-4551-b0fb-b58a62b7b52d 00:30:59.042 --> 00:31:02.432 Socrates wants to say no, and that's precisely why this NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 93437218-d164-4135-8b7a-436e9f20ad6b 00:31:02.432 --> 00:31:06.161 definition won't work. What we want a definition to do NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 7af219a6-0877-4d03-bf6c-482f6ced6eea 00:31:06.161 --> 00:31:09.890 is clearly mark out the just actions from the unjust actions, NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 112c7ae7-38f8-40d7-b013-163392178868 00:31:09.890 --> 00:31:12.602 and this definition puts something unjust, giving NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 0e9e4439-0412-4f02-8607-fe6b84e15009 00:31:12.602 --> 00:31:17.009 back a weapon to your friend when they're going to use it to NOTE Confidence: 0.8399303 3a6c6059-718d-4b96-8319-40235ec94468 00:31:17.009 --> 00:31:18.026 do bad things, NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 57c18eeb-4141-4917-b568-4ba30aff13ef 00:31:18.150 --> 00:31:21.842 it takes that and puts it in the just column because it counts NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 c82346e6-dc2c-454e-ae50-64201309d601 00:31:21.842 --> 00:31:25.534 as giving what is owed. So what Socrates is really doing here is NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 69a12786-50fc-4765-9e63-79d6343a5747 00:31:25.534 --> 00:31:27.806 giving a counterexample to Cephalus's definition. And NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 c8060d4c-7e77-496b-ac82-c550f696f857 00:31:27.806 --> 00:31:31.498 so now we can see that what the problem was with Cephalus's NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 fe6a7b0b-a3e2-4744-b8ba-60c33214758c 00:31:31.498 --> 00:31:34.622 definition of justice, we can turn and look at Socrates's NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 d1537378-8261-4519-9344-3cbc8053dbf1 00:31:34.622 --> 00:31:38.314 definition of justice in Book 4. So now let me turn to the NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 97ce5edb-21ff-484e-bc19-3ff9efb054fe 00:31:38.314 --> 00:31:42.290 definition of justice in Book 4. I know that many of you have NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 0229d85a-b91e-4b01-a431-f0ce98f760ca 00:31:42.290 --> 00:31:45.982 not gotten there yet, and we're not going to talk about in too NOTE Confidence: 0.83255213 3d1632df-ff70-4d55-9441-1a9866a4c841 00:31:45.982 --> 00:31:47.970 much detail, but I wanted to at NOTE Confidence: 0.81517607 c82e1cf6-9596-4a15-b95c-4b0f043925b4 00:31:47.970 --> 00:31:52.984 least look at it once during this discussion. Here's what NOTE Confidence: 0.81517607 0980f3bc-363d-45f1-ba3a-55fc238dd333 00:31:52.984 --> 00:31:55.008 Socrates says: justice is NOTE Confidence: 0.89271593 88e6a90a-41f2-4008-9d6a-45a8c1758085 00:31:55.800 --> 00:31:59.448 "each part doing its job and not interfering." NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 d168f990-a1d5-4a09-bf7c-31862229d3f8 00:32:01.060 --> 00:32:06.088 But what Socrates is saying is that we should shift the focus NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 6fa2e546-c850-4e14-b727-d1d814e100da 00:32:06.088 --> 00:32:11.116 from good and bad actions to the people and cities that NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 9b2f6eab-9047-4585-b16a-18795f2a6c2f 00:32:11.116 --> 00:32:15.306 they issue from, that morality isn't just about actions, it's NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 6336e630-630e-452c-b2f1-e3cce2e853b7 00:32:15.306 --> 00:32:19.915 about what or or who produces them, and that morality might NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 d8d5ca01-436d-48e2-a559-bfab304091d1 00:32:19.915 --> 00:32:23.267 actually be about having a certain structure or organization. NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 092b7cdc-2ea6-4ef9-965d-04ff7e8b69f3 00:32:23.267 --> 00:32:29.133 So in the case of a person, it's about having your soul or mind NOTE Confidence: 0.8583407 7e1253f1-0e9b-4224-8f59-bdb4d740cdc0 00:32:29.133 --> 00:32:31.228 ordered in a certain way, NOTE Confidence: 0.83463436 5ace2f72-694f-42e9-9490-84249cc95fd4 00:32:31.880 --> 00:32:36.632 so that each part does its job. For example, we've NOTE Confidence: 0.83463436 18affc2e-9642-4615-9cc8-6cfdaf8c72c1 00:32:36.632 --> 00:32:41.816 got reason, whose job it is to desire the truth. We've NOTE Confidence: 0.83463436 bae87ca9-d9d7-43c6-ae19-81cc8865ed07 00:32:41.816 --> 00:32:45.704 got spirit, who desires honor; and appetite, which desires NOTE Confidence: 0.83463436 3333e3af-9c09-49d3-ba7a-793fa28aeec3 00:32:45.704 --> 00:32:50.456 food, drink, and sex.  Justice, then, for the person, is about NOTE Confidence: 0.83463436 afd487e6-dffb-4647-9efd-3d73156c7359 00:32:50.456 --> 00:32:54.776 the way in which our desires and goals are structured. NOTE Confidence: 0.84567076 1337519e-e780-46bf-bc74-074825ff25af 00:32:56.400 --> 00:33:00.677 I'm not going to tell you what you should think about this, but I NOTE Confidence: 0.84567076 f3a7a33c-860f-4974-bf2d-727fb125b66d 00:33:00.677 --> 00:33:04.296 do want to show you how Socrates would approach this definition NOTE Confidence: 0.84567076 856675b5-1072-4f25-b0d8-34fac5e101de 00:33:04.296 --> 00:33:07.915 using the methods that I set out. So how would Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.84567076 3df6c819-ffb5-4cbe-a753-1c7fb371be80 00:33:07.915 --> 00:33:09.560 evaluate this if someone else NOTE Confidence: 0.8770828 cebdd488-0a3c-40a3-a928-8e1d9fcc9eee 00:33:09.560 --> 00:33:15.272 had presented it? Now, Socrates would ask, is this definition or NOTE Confidence: 0.8770828 a5c04288-aaf1-45a8-8835-6f83b395da78 00:33:15.272 --> 00:33:17.742 account of justice complete and NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 35a6ae7b-2c95-46d7-aed4-d7b1105bdddf 00:33:17.742 --> 00:33:22.854 consistent? So how can we tell? What we want from any NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 fea30b7d-d454-4b72-bc35-725554e817e0 00:33:22.854 --> 00:33:26.778 definition is we want it to tell us what unites all the examples, NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 52a7d527-29bf-43b4-a029-314d6a782efa 00:33:26.778 --> 00:33:31.029 and so here are the types of things that can be just: cities, NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 06dff25a-f861-4e47-80b4-e84b9061d6a7 00:33:31.029 --> 00:33:34.299 people, and action. So this definition better be able to NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 8ac374d7-4f3b-4bd3-8b97-a1e5f587ac61 00:33:34.299 --> 00:33:38.223 tell us what makes cities just, people just, and actions just. And NOTE Confidence: 0.87003094 384bfba4-001d-4391-9f05-e71176a37b86 00:33:38.223 --> 00:33:40.185 if not, then it's not complete. NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 49825997-e6bb-40f0-80e6-c20525bbff3a 00:33:40.810 --> 00:33:44.440 And the second thing is, can we think of any counterexamples? NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 0f3e3c17-3acc-4074-8d01-854df31d3421 00:33:44.440 --> 00:33:48.730 So another way to think about this is, we've got sort of the NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 915691e5-1a16-4d02-a3e0-a2b7a9625469 00:33:48.730 --> 00:33:52.360 circle of things here, and we've got all of the just NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 c05c6dcd-c677-4b50-a52f-594559a936dc 00:33:52.360 --> 00:33:56.650 things that go inside of it, and we've got all of the unjust NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 e0fa1ef8-6c47-42ee-bffc-97e58f4d3c54 00:33:56.650 --> 00:34:00.610 things outside of it. And the idea is that what a definition NOTE Confidence: 0.8886975 4777f402-cad9-48c3-8d7b-6585bc1522a1 00:34:00.610 --> 00:34:03.250 should do is kind of form this boundary. NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 db65c2d5-c9f2-41d3-8d32-6797b5284564 00:34:04.430 --> 00:34:09.201 And if we get something that we think is just that ends up NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 9ab4f090-9cbf-435d-919a-5069116e90c4 00:34:09.201 --> 00:34:12.504 falling outside of the definition, then that's going to NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 568d8548-b20d-457f-b04c-f7c06adac9db 00:34:12.504 --> 00:34:15.807 be a counterexample. And similarly, if we get something NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 a20cf26b-c229-4968-a97b-a587d15fcab4 00:34:15.807 --> 00:34:19.844 that's unjust, an example of an unjust thing that fell inside NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 669f82e0-e9fe-4583-997a-6de8b43c36bf 00:34:19.844 --> 00:34:23.881 the circle according to the definition, that's going to be a NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 08304b39-60aa-4d21-8c55-c91c060f62d9 00:34:23.881 --> 00:34:27.551 counterexample. So if you can find something or someone that NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 cec36194-633a-4395-afde-70ac1f11eb3f 00:34:27.551 --> 00:34:31.955 is ordered in the way Socrates says and yet is unjust, you've NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 c7a77606-fe6d-47db-a84c-bf0319a9d3a4 00:34:31.955 --> 00:34:35.992 got a counterexample. Or if you think that there's someone that NOTE Confidence: 0.8852028 c4fd697d-5c26-4fe7-89d3-3ce4e1d2f274 00:34:35.992 --> 00:34:37.460 clearly is just that NOTE Confidence: 0.8794979 2a3d4448-0518-49ef-bf00-5a67bbf1d426 00:34:37.560 --> 00:34:41.376 fails to meet that definition -- again, you've got a NOTE Confidence: 0.8812616 14d32ac6-f214-48df-a9a2-91ce725f52bf 00:34:41.376 --> 00:34:45.967 counterexample. So those are some of the types of questions NOTE Confidence: 0.8812616 d2ce7600-27d6-483f-a334-396f1a46b483 00:34:45.967 --> 00:34:50.290 that you can use to engage Socrates in precisely the way NOTE Confidence: 0.8812616 4c27d846-41be-4f15-bf74-5f3e3a42e1c4 00:34:50.290 --> 00:34:51.862 that Socrates engages other NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 f2838e94-74e0-4e5d-8822-23c5299b1af0 00:34:51.862 --> 00:34:57.132 people. I also want to return to the Ring of Gyges and NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 51d0e8bf-63cd-4739-808d-bb642299142f 00:34:57.132 --> 00:35:01.435 the question of why be moral? We don't get an answer to the NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 6ead56dc-ea95-4e4c-b711-e869658107b2 00:35:01.435 --> 00:35:05.407 question of why be moral until Book 9, and what Socrates will NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 847b86c6-213e-44ea-a3aa-ab8adf270800 00:35:05.407 --> 00:35:09.710 tell us is that what we do with the ring of invisibility matters, NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 51767f41-fa77-4211-8b20-c70f2da51418 00:35:09.710 --> 00:35:12.689 because our choices about our actions are ultimately choices NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 33e3278b-dcad-4d3a-90c4-6bf67dc01998 00:35:12.689 --> 00:35:15.668 about the structure and organization of our very souls NOTE Confidence: 0.86118597 95975258-8717-458c-b5b0-a1aac5e2df7d 00:35:15.668 --> 00:35:16.992 and what we desire. NOTE Confidence: 0.9089542 b32939e8-7e16-48fb-8bef-18e76885d17c 00:35:17.580 --> 00:35:22.403 And I also wanted to return to this example because it gives me NOTE Confidence: 0.9089542 0029253d-0229-410d-92ff-16972629c1f5 00:35:22.403 --> 00:35:26.484 an opportunity to fit a Lord of the Rings reference in. NOTE Confidence: 0.84940326 607a3d8a-4ef1-47f7-8a80-363c76ac7bb0 00:35:27.100 --> 00:35:30.499 And maybe many of you thought about Tolkien's stories in the NOTE Confidence: 0.84940326 a7566edd-57b9-48f0-abf7-34fa9dfa948c 00:35:30.499 --> 00:35:33.898 Lord of the Rings originally with the Ring of NOTE Confidence: 0.84940326 c1f3f203-155b-4bcc-a14c-52dfaa7de01d 00:35:33.898 --> 00:35:37.297 Gyges, and thinking about a ring of invisibility. But I think NOTE Confidence: 0.84940326 e8c9a348-9b40-476e-800a-f7bbf6b19982 00:35:37.297 --> 00:35:38.842 what's so interesting is that NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 bbaa4136-ad10-4203-bf02-724380e36cae 00:35:40.420 --> 00:35:44.740 I don't think that the Ring of Gyges is actually NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 6df27d55-92fb-4833-8c11-9218198f4d71 00:35:44.740 --> 00:35:48.700 similar to Tolkien's stories in the Lord of the Rings. NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 f4241644-adca-4bf9-ab70-e0f0d55bc580 00:35:48.700 --> 00:35:52.300 I think it's actually Socrates's solution to the problem NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 311c989e-154a-4a31-a4df-9874b581c71b 00:35:52.300 --> 00:35:55.900 raised in the Ring of Gyges that's closer to Tolkien's NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 ae4b413d-db9b-4c4b-8289-1d5e1ec73e51 00:35:55.900 --> 00:36:00.220 stories. And I promise not to offer any spoilers. But in the NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 edaa2ab1-d81a-4999-b8eb-286c3933c46e 00:36:00.220 --> 00:36:03.820 stories, there's at least two characters that interact with the NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 b306e16b-7f10-421f-8aa2-41b86668b2e8 00:36:03.820 --> 00:36:07.780 ring of invisibility in really important ways. On the one hand, NOTE Confidence: 0.8174044 c7c931d3-156f-448e-8fac-d99f22deef31 00:36:07.780 --> 00:36:09.580 we've got Frodo. Here's NOTE Confidence: 0.8321766 3c9c8453-705d-4ca7-8ecc-bb94d75ff0de 00:36:09.580 --> 00:36:14.264 Frodo. Frodo is cautious and limited about using the ring's NOTE Confidence: 0.8321766 b5ac9465-2cbd-4ad7-9afd-1001fb66e91e 00:36:14.264 --> 00:36:18.400 power because he's worried about how it might shape and change NOTE Confidence: 0.8321766 6bd504a0-b2d7-4fab-85e9-676662750b9e 00:36:18.400 --> 00:36:20.656 his character. And then we have NOTE Confidence: 0.8669129 3fc000f1-c1c9-4dd9-91c0-439953ad4a25 00:36:20.656 --> 00:36:25.590 Gollum here, who was formerly Sméagol, who puts on the ring and NOTE Confidence: 0.8669129 0e1b7020-d96d-4283-9a07-cddacf10904a 00:36:25.590 --> 00:36:29.010 becomes obsessed with its power. It fundamentally changes who he NOTE Confidence: 0.8669129 b395fa49-4ec4-4e8c-8dad-ae0c09a2e320 00:36:29.010 --> 00:36:33.114 is.  And now Socrates is going to try to convince us, similarly, NOTE Confidence: 0.8669129 a737c873-684d-4f40-b273-7925493f3290 00:36:33.114 --> 00:36:37.218 that these types of choices, what we NOTE Confidence: 0.8669129 41716b32-0426-44fb-b3c1-e9fa3bbd560b 00:36:37.218 --> 00:36:38.586 would do with the NOTE Confidence: 0.8748242 396014d6-3131-4e45-ac7d-1c499d277966 00:36:38.660 --> 00:36:42.290 ring, will ultimately be choices about who we are. And NOTE Confidence: 0.8748242 588bd791-f58b-432a-a2a7-d8ec22102ba3 00:36:42.290 --> 00:36:46.646 who we are matters, and that's why you have a good reason, NOTE Confidence: 0.8748242 33f19fbd-e815-4397-9e1e-c25fad23de41 00:36:46.646 --> 00:36:51.002 even when you have the ring on, to do the right thing. NOTE Confidence: 0.8690573 2a13cd63-e6ef-4656-b2de-34842277d287 00:36:52.280 --> 00:36:56.480 Now I'm not trying to convince you that this response to the NOTE Confidence: 0.8690573 df222c3f-214a-429c-814d-756fce64c3c0 00:36:56.480 --> 00:37:01.030 Ring of Gyges is necessarily the right answer, but I want to be NOTE Confidence: 0.8690573 eab87db1-f5c4-4294-a4da-e49cbedb7f72 00:37:01.030 --> 00:37:04.180 clear. When Socrates asked this question, NOTE Confidence: 0.8690573 21e5f0d4-e74c-435c-9655-e67e7ccdcbfe 00:37:04.180 --> 00:37:08.730 why be moral, the answer is because the state of our souls NOTE Confidence: 0.8690573 2ef8d3ac-cd45-4426-96da-679248f05ad1 00:37:08.730 --> 00:37:12.580 is valuable even when no one is looking, according to Socrates. NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 0642dcad-f385-4853-af58-76f7f42841b3 00:37:32.160 --> 00:37:36.302 I don't want to give you the impression that the Republic is NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 44c26690-c6af-4ae5-bf5f-496a8cbfa9b3 00:37:36.302 --> 00:37:39.290 only about justice and morality. There are at least three other NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 729dfbf0-305d-44a7-be9c-c643f0db6bff 00:37:39.290 --> 00:37:42.942 themes that run all the way through the Republic. Plato is NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 724b6a10-5563-428c-9a67-e36e2deda65e 00:37:42.942 --> 00:37:45.930 also interested in education; leadership and power; and art, NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 3456eb79-615d-4092-89d6-da95dae24116 00:37:45.930 --> 00:37:49.914 myth, poetry, and lies. And I wanted to issue you a challenge. NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 b39d2df9-3eb1-483a-acd0-c366fe5c3fe6 00:37:49.914 --> 00:37:53.898 I think the hardest thing for me about the Republic is that NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 1926789e-b832-493f-9521-45e86bb608ef 00:37:53.898 --> 00:37:56.886 there's just so many examples and comparisons and analogies NOTE Confidence: 0.8770048 6372a780-96b0-492b-a68f-464adcf6c5a2 00:37:56.886 --> 00:38:01.534 and similes, and it's hard to keep track of them all, and I find NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 391a8822-99e4-4c2c-a2c0-78977794d733 00:38:01.534 --> 00:38:05.306 that often I'm paying such close attention to some of them NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 a08e7b7b-1bbf-417e-bdec-b596372d5181 00:38:05.306 --> 00:38:08.834 that I inevitably miss other ones. So my challenge for you is to NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 ed2556a3-5bc9-4aae-acd0-ae6c44be307c 00:38:08.834 --> 00:38:12.656 go back and find at least one analogy or simile or metaphor or NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 75a473f5-27ca-4937-80ba-73d31dc8c7fc 00:38:12.656 --> 00:38:15.890 allegory or definition, or even just sort of like section of NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 cde7f296-e167-489e-8a29-324aa4fc0a68 00:38:15.890 --> 00:38:19.712 text that you didn't look at very closely. And I want you to NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 9198708f-ea63-427a-a9e9-a0439dfc2468 00:38:19.712 --> 00:38:22.946 ask yourself two questions about it: You know, what is the NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 3176631a-a63e-4fcd-9b0b-6ef5e149eb5c 00:38:22.946 --> 00:38:26.474 question that Plato is asking here? And then what is the answer NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 35dc327b-1b3c-4413-9ebb-c3055aeeb2b6 00:38:26.474 --> 00:38:30.296 that is given? And I did this challenge, and I wanted to share NOTE Confidence: 0.8743879 1e9e0435-8655-4f89-b6a6-f252186fc2c3 00:38:30.296 --> 00:38:33.530 the results with you, and my challenge had to do with NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 6fe86f0d-5424-49c6-b5da-98a7c3b27e66 00:38:33.530 --> 00:38:36.450 education. Specifically, the Allegory of the Cave. I know NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 d04e745f-7341-4b3c-a996-6f92ce9da1c4 00:38:36.450 --> 00:38:40.285 many of you have not read that section yet, but what happens to NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 1e945809-87bf-4e56-9861-e48bde20f5f0 00:38:40.285 --> 00:38:44.710 me when I read the Allegory of the Cave is that I find it just NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 0e9ecad4-1d09-4ce0-a6d6-25a2a1cd949e 00:38:44.710 --> 00:38:47.365 so fascinating that I ignore what happens immediately before NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 058e611c-77aa-497a-b49b-ccd3c307c326 00:38:47.365 --> 00:38:50.905 and after. I wanted to highlight some of this because I learned NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 d09de54d-9300-4f50-939e-35f5dcc3c56b 00:38:50.905 --> 00:38:53.855 something really important by going back and having a look. NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 0394267c-71e0-4ba3-b7ea-56a096a1eee7 00:38:53.855 --> 00:38:56.805 When Socrates introduces the Allegory of the Cave, he says NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 1a9c6484-f42b-41c8-97f5-ae38293c3055 00:38:56.805 --> 00:39:00.345 the allegory, what it's supposed to do, is "compare the effect of NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 82d067eb-b188-4dbf-bc68-f74217118add 00:39:00.345 --> 00:39:04.180 education and the lack of it on our nature." And I always think NOTE Confidence: 0.8623352 98951322-9f35-48ad-bb08-d0bc73f7a826 00:39:04.180 --> 00:39:06.540 that's interesting because he doesn't say, "compare the NOTE Confidence: 0.82866925 03a6d654-2223-4ece-99b5-90c9dc694309 00:39:06.540 --> 00:39:09.103 effect of education on the Guardians in an utopian city," he NOTE Confidence: 0.82866925 c42480cc-0d2e-4ce2-a49e-4768273000b2 00:39:09.103 --> 00:39:12.062 says, "our nature." And so it really sounds like there's a NOTE Confidence: 0.82866925 add2ab95-ee62-46d6-9413-55661070c02b 00:39:12.062 --> 00:39:13.676 sort of deeper lesson there for NOTE Confidence: 0.87202114 d325f33c-6b3c-43b0-bc52-273d1926c27d 00:39:13.676 --> 00:39:16.978 us. And now what happens when I then go on to read NOTE Confidence: 0.87202114 5afc757c-707b-4696-9c10-45d7661cefab 00:39:16.978 --> 00:39:19.354 the Allegory of the Cave is I get sort of distracted by NOTE Confidence: 0.87202114 5044e056-62b7-4ea5-b969-2f71d40c086c 00:39:19.354 --> 00:39:21.730 all the details, and so let me talk about some of those. NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 20cd717b-35a2-45f8-a618-2d8badeb306c 00:39:23.160 --> 00:39:26.761 In the Allegory of the Cave, you have some people who have been NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 4e3413ec-39b3-4464-a72d-930ce4b4e0d6 00:39:26.761 --> 00:39:30.085 chained in a cave all of their lives. They've grown up there, NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 1733ede6-fc90-4530-a71f-dc9f1a91213d 00:39:30.085 --> 00:39:33.409 and I've spent their whole lives looking at a wall which has NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 f18bd36d-786a-47f1-bee9-6f3e338bf3e0 00:39:33.409 --> 00:39:36.733 shadows cast upon it by people carrying objects in front of the NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 b7826229-fb83-40fa-b339-23e9a86ba52e 00:39:36.733 --> 00:39:40.057 fire. Except the chained people can't see any of the objects or NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 bb1d363e-1dfc-4420-872c-82cd82e3f4bd 00:39:40.057 --> 00:39:43.381 the fire, they only see the shadows on the cave wall. And NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 6d591fa8-d066-4025-9c42-0dcf101f319e 00:39:43.381 --> 00:39:46.705 now, when you have a group of humans who spend their whole NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 05a3ad8d-1444-4b7f-8b08-d96bc88025e3 00:39:46.705 --> 00:39:49.475 lives watching shadows, they become really good at it. They NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 85be250c-547e-485b-9581-2644d76196de 00:39:49.475 --> 00:39:52.245 name the shadows, they make predictions about them, and they NOTE Confidence: 0.86522436 5cc2f45c-0515-4fa9-87db-c6b4f3abaaec 00:39:52.245 --> 00:39:53.630 probably even enjoy seeing them. NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 7e2c9cf7-aae5-4d89-9672-a845ff7ae944 00:39:53.830 --> 00:39:57.862 And Socrates asks us to imagine that one of the prisoners is NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 102106db-e4ef-4308-a4d9-7f91ac566866 00:39:57.862 --> 00:40:00.886 released, sort of released from their chains, and immediately NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 0813a1ca-a908-4ade-b96f-ca22f8ba5963 00:40:00.886 --> 00:40:05.254 they become aware of the light of the fire and the objects that NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 d0be7469-74ce-490e-9ba0-2987dc8d054c 00:40:05.254 --> 00:40:09.622 cast shadows on the wall. And it's hard for them to look at NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 265fb5b9-1c8a-4f04-a260-912aac26a77a 00:40:09.622 --> 00:40:14.326 the fire at first. And then they are dragged out of the cave and NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 abe9d1ec-6a8f-4123-aec2-fadd59793346 00:40:14.326 --> 00:40:18.022 out into the world illuminated by the sun. And they can't NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 4eadcb79-e33e-4432-bc24-e0da209f5724 00:40:18.022 --> 00:40:22.054 really understand it -- the light is very hard on their eyes -- but NOTE Confidence: 0.86712974 129562f0-55fb-4233-b38c-d00548a30d9d 00:40:22.054 --> 00:40:23.734 the first things they eventually NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 f2244547-b64a-47f8-823a-18f2ecd8ee91 00:40:23.734 --> 00:40:26.701 recognize are the shadows outside of the cave; then the NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 f7ad86f1-4ea4-4102-981a-801632bc9e35 00:40:26.701 --> 00:40:30.049 images reflected in the water; and the trees, birds, and clouds; NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 72c008d4-bfce-4862-bc64-6afdb200d4e2 00:40:30.049 --> 00:40:33.676 and eventually the sun. And so what do they do? They go back NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 b0d96682-23d6-4a39-b029-0e025bd8ba8b 00:40:33.676 --> 00:40:36.466 into the cave and they tell their compatriots, they announce NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 ae7b31b8-40a1-496a-afa9-f70f3655204c 00:40:36.466 --> 00:40:39.256 that there's a whole world above. But it's very difficult NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 e90aed70-2881-4653-bbe4-073c4acbb38b 00:40:39.256 --> 00:40:42.046 for the compatriots to even understand what the person who's NOTE Confidence: 0.8753646 67a6f56b-c1c8-4935-adad-d35346b20ea2 00:40:42.046 --> 00:40:43.999 been out of the cave is talking NOTE Confidence: 0.8860383 e154632f-cd17-4bad-8317-372e8fdacbcd 00:40:43.999 --> 00:40:47.994 about. They get upset and angry and even murderous. NOTE Confidence: 0.84856313 3f573336-6e30-4c60-a83d-76de1b395cde 00:40:49.180 --> 00:40:52.634 And maybe this will remind you, make you think of what NOTE Confidence: 0.84856313 e52698a3-98e0-4e51-b2d7-096068a263ef 00:40:52.634 --> 00:40:55.774 happened to Socrates. I find this story so fascinating to NOTE Confidence: 0.84856313 01acfb17-e54a-466f-83a7-f800eed9a2b7 00:40:55.774 --> 00:40:58.914 think about education. I have a lot of questions here. NOTE Confidence: 0.84856313 dbe1ed34-7349-4b3a-8cb5-d249eba11216 00:40:58.914 --> 00:41:01.740 Why are the prisoners chained? What exactly releases them? NOTE Confidence: 0.9065974 a4accc64-0a2c-44b6-a2af-53a9a3afbd23 00:41:03.160 --> 00:41:06.148 Why do you have to learn about the light of the fire NOTE Confidence: 0.9065974 2ca79806-3ac2-460e-900c-978a85d1203d 00:41:06.148 --> 00:41:08.389 before you learn about the light of the sun? NOTE Confidence: 0.9001568 de6b86e1-8d99-43ac-a9c1-24a167178fc9 00:41:09.840 --> 00:41:14.320 Why would you go back into the cave after you got out of there? NOTE Confidence: 0.9001568 d6770c22-6072-4704-bfe5-612899548dd2 00:41:14.320 --> 00:41:17.200 And what exactly is so infuriating about hearing from NOTE Confidence: 0.9001568 9e250c0e-9469-47b9-941b-848b47c27c8d 00:41:17.200 --> 00:41:21.360 somebody that tells you that the world isn't as you think it is? NOTE Confidence: 0.8637656 80ed5a86-dec2-4866-8a77-aa6e83e59436 00:41:22.120 --> 00:41:25.336 And so I think all of these are really important questions to NOTE Confidence: 0.8637656 63444309-5dab-42f8-8111-13603d71a512 00:41:25.336 --> 00:41:28.016 think about when it comes to Plato and education -- so  NOTE Confidence: 0.8637656 6cb5f582-db85-4fef-be0e-acddfca00269 00:41:28.016 --> 00:41:30.428 interesting that, in fact, they've often caused me to NOTE Confidence: 0.8637656 7ae157f7-a0cd-4941-81e5-f6e2c5e8a5cf 00:41:30.428 --> 00:41:33.108 ignore something that Socrates says right after the Allegory of NOTE Confidence: 0.8637656 321b007c-34a8-4df8-b2b9-ffa4375dcb56 00:41:33.108 --> 00:41:34.716 the Cave -- and it's weird. NOTE Confidence: 0.8660673 cac36750-57b6-4ea4-a876-3a0c634e93d3 00:41:35.570 --> 00:41:40.212 Socrates says that education is the craft of turning the soul. NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 2e3820a2-56df-46fe-9891-23befc95f642 00:41:41.640 --> 00:41:44.907 You know, usually when I'd read the Republic, I just sort of NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 48f7dc5e-451f-4874-925c-6cd586d13c40 00:41:44.907 --> 00:41:48.174 passed right over it. I thought, okay, yeah, yeah, that sounds NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 c808e121-ec4b-4880-b814-184b22fc8214 00:41:48.174 --> 00:41:52.332 right. But I returned to it and I was like wait, what exactly is NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 c70dc72d-00b8-4e74-9d9e-05feb0f43677 00:41:52.332 --> 00:41:55.896 turning the soul -- like, what is happening to my soul when I'm NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 1e1fd6ee-ca45-4d9d-ac9f-31f4ab83c52a 00:41:55.896 --> 00:41:59.163 being educated that it's being turned? What NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 a3a735aa-fa09-4531-b6aa-ce7c49d365d9 00:41:59.163 --> 00:42:02.430 does that really mean? So I wanted to look around for NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 55660314-2ccf-4497-9e3c-0fce76652cec 00:42:02.430 --> 00:42:05.697 answers, and I came up with a couple of suggestions. NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 dfc4a74f-d67c-4e6c-941e-4fdd326667b7 00:42:05.697 --> 00:42:08.667 First we get from Glaucon. Glaucon says oh, astronomy, look NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 aa7dfa8e-5160-4dc1-b2c8-ccb230546b65 00:42:08.667 --> 00:42:11.637 up, you know, you'll literally turn your soul in another NOTE Confidence: 0.85802966 1ae9b04a-0e3c-400b-a229-3f0fe56a0669 00:42:11.637 --> 00:42:13.122 direction. And so that's the NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 b5194686-fa14-48fc-acbd-77afba114ead 00:42:13.122 --> 00:42:17.184 first suggestion. But Socrates says no, that's not the type of NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 7dd94ff4-dfcb-48b4-a1fa-f4ae190a2f42 00:42:17.184 --> 00:42:20.770 turning the soul that education is responsible for. So I NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 bbf6f6f1-38a6-4000-bc40-e844fb86c94d 00:42:20.770 --> 00:42:24.030 thought, okay, well, maybe the obvious answer is knowledge. You NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 9d44d680-f0c0-40b1-bfc9-f7dabab937bb 00:42:24.030 --> 00:42:26.964 know, Plato emphasizes the forms, and so maybe what NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 37c6884b-4e84-414e-b9fc-0e5a7e6ee2bb 00:42:26.964 --> 00:42:30.876 education does is give you access to the forms. And I mean, NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 1555951a-3f2a-4797-bc3f-7a52fbed2b01 00:42:30.876 --> 00:42:35.114 that seems true. But when I went back and looked, Socrates says no, NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 7edc2a1c-ae2c-456f-a13e-1ed2e214a69b 00:42:35.114 --> 00:42:39.026 education is not about putting knowledge in the mind. So okay. So NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 559bd8e7-4127-48a7-afed-be678dfbba71 00:42:39.026 --> 00:42:43.264 then I thought about a slogan you hear from a lot of educators, NOTE Confidence: 0.83335763 b81d4f60-bad2-49d2-a0f1-7ed7f38c85ea 00:42:43.264 --> 00:42:46.850 which is that they're not telling you what to think but NOTE Confidence: 0.8924087 139dd837-8d42-4501-aa29-02e921ec7791 00:42:46.850 --> 00:42:50.862 how to think. And I started to wonder if maybe you know NOTE Confidence: 0.8924087 462b302e-816d-4201-9b89-317e8ab5b432 00:42:50.862 --> 00:42:54.142 education as the craft of turning the soul was about NOTE Confidence: 0.8924087 1d7ac43a-3873-47b7-94e7-f7dbf53b6fd2 00:42:54.142 --> 00:42:57.094 giving someone the skills to learn, teaching them about NOTE Confidence: 0.87550545 a921a6d8-b477-4dd6-a0df-4f50a81ac99b 00:42:57.094 --> 00:43:01.210 learning. But again, Socrates says no, that everyone is born NOTE Confidence: 0.87550545 a7c004ee-fcb1-4fea-ac5c-5dab920e5b60 00:43:01.210 --> 00:43:02.860 with the ability to learn, NOTE Confidence: 0.8478882 96111e90-62f4-4d08-9e51-cf25ce1e4a94 00:43:04.300 --> 00:43:07.644 and that education is not the craft of giving sight to the NOTE Confidence: 0.8478882 3dfb6505-2bab-46ab-bd91-a15bee24d65b 00:43:07.644 --> 00:43:10.684 eyes. So those were my initial answers, and I didn't NOTE Confidence: 0.8478882 5ebade44-b866-4feb-ab64-8ffeb73d66d7 00:43:10.684 --> 00:43:12.204 quite know what to think. NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 7c581f4a-0a55-41d4-9e51-01aab5ee8524 00:43:13.580 --> 00:43:17.934 But I thought it had to mean something. So I started NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 f5aba4d6-9d8e-4400-a2d8-1c3e83874956 00:43:17.934 --> 00:43:20.733 looking around in the neighboring passages and I found NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 f2599ea0-53ea-4b87-ab05-5df0b4518b1a 00:43:20.733 --> 00:43:24.154 an instance where Socrates says that turning the soul is a NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 de8fc242-04c2-4d02-b426-e02a89507dbd 00:43:24.154 --> 00:43:27.575 matter of influencing reason. And what did we learn about in NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 30793180-47a6-4678-bc00-2c9009b4844c 00:43:27.575 --> 00:43:30.996 Book 4? We learned that reason is the desire for truth. NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 5c73f42b-bdf4-4fda-9757-0da835aec97c 00:43:30.996 --> 00:43:34.417 And I started to think about the perfect city that Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 95b74817-ed87-4622-a757-64e0890a8e23 00:43:34.417 --> 00:43:37.527 describes in his quest to understand what justice is, and he NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 8ad45451-6ad1-4e90-8e37-aafa41d789c3 00:43:37.527 --> 00:43:40.948 says it cannot come about until the philosophers rule, or the NOTE Confidence: 0.86183184 1bb5add2-2e6e-44e3-9ab9-6a6c685f4017 00:43:40.948 --> 00:43:43.747 rulers become philosophers. And the etymology of the word NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 73524314-02d7-43fd-a99b-c9af3f13f56e 00:43:43.747 --> 00:43:48.210 "philosopher" is "lover of wisdom": "philia," which is "to love"; NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 49793a79-45f3-427d-b5b9-bbb856cc5918 00:43:48.210 --> 00:43:52.986 and "sophia," which is "wisdom." So I started to think more NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 0dd8c524-7446-4497-83ae-920fc399fd03 00:43:52.986 --> 00:43:56.966 about education and desire. And my best hypothesis right now NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 6a65a7f2-719d-48bf-bda9-6b3d187e1187 00:43:56.966 --> 00:44:01.344 about what Socrates means when he describes turning the soul is NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 98183ebb-cac6-4650-9238-b44e54e0e371 00:44:01.344 --> 00:44:05.324 that he means fostering reason's desire for the truth. Socrates NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 ab4d86e6-ce2c-4177-b61d-2b13239f0143 00:44:05.324 --> 00:44:10.498 here is trying to emphasize that it is a craft, not about giving NOTE Confidence: 0.812265 c511bccc-a3ad-4c3e-b180-4270b4a2570f 00:44:10.498 --> 00:44:14.080 knowledge or about giving skills, but about fostering desire. NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 2dbbcbe8-05eb-42b1-95c8-13123802fc77 00:44:14.260 --> 00:44:18.654 Well, I would love to hear from you if you think that turning NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 41eeb05a-dee3-45e9-9200-f7cde09854cc 00:44:18.654 --> 00:44:22.372 the soul means something else.  But thinking of turning the soul NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 34e67070-b1a1-435e-a155-5aeef0f760f5 00:44:22.372 --> 00:44:25.414 and education this way had some really important implications NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 ba54dccd-b602-4947-9adc-3b897e5c1860 00:44:25.414 --> 00:44:29.470 for some of the other themes that I've picked out so far. NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 2d45372e-dcf9-445c-8cb2-6a937ba9382e 00:44:29.470 --> 00:44:32.850 Starting with leadership and power. In Book 1, you get NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 042a1280-bd86-4966-9c00-98d132f7e0d1 00:44:32.850 --> 00:44:35.892 Socrates and Thrasymachus arguing about what a political NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 4cb2ea44-969e-4451-9d24-21283c005dda 00:44:35.892 --> 00:44:39.272 leader should do or be. Socrates says that political leaders NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 0fc2d4a8-e371-4524-b581-f4eafc22414f 00:44:39.272 --> 00:44:43.328 should be like doctors. Leaders should take care of the NOTE Confidence: 0.86649936 036b88db-e91a-45bd-991f-187f579a6601 00:44:43.328 --> 00:44:46.032 population as doctors take care of their patients. NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 ed62d2f0-0f5b-4647-87d4-7bef4950fb07 00:44:46.310 --> 00:44:49.118 This contrasts with Thrasymachus.  Thrasymachus says NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 c9f59fa3-e965-4f9f-b547-d15f1feba960 00:44:49.118 --> 00:44:53.330 that no, no, a good ruler is like a shepherd, fattening up NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 282150be-e393-4d6d-8507-7ecbc4f3afa2 00:44:53.330 --> 00:44:57.542 their flock. They take care of their sheep, but it's for their NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 daa5ad58-0c23-4c4c-b4fb-a2a25b2cc978 00:44:57.542 --> 00:45:00.350 own purposes. This raises an important question: What are NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 eb69ca1a-d4b4-43c9-995e-f99bbed38548 00:45:00.350 --> 00:45:04.211 leaders supposed to be like, shepherds or doctors? And then, NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 e8f2e124-a295-4bad-bfe7-fb8a676cda22 00:45:04.211 --> 00:45:08.423 in Book 3, we discover that the rulers in the ideal city NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 52bc87d2-3635-4f30-b39c-0f2612b42450 00:45:08.423 --> 00:45:11.933 should not desire to rule. And this is quite surprising, NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 0504ac25-bc3a-4085-b44e-4427e8a7fb6b 00:45:11.933 --> 00:45:15.794 because Socrates has said that the best people for knowing NOTE Confidence: 0.823609 827f9455-ed51-47fc-82b2-7e77da930e7f 00:45:15.794 --> 00:45:17.198 are the knowledge lovers. NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 59616751-0874-4a56-9419-3372079ce2e6 00:45:17.330 --> 00:45:20.641 And the best people for getting honors are the honors lovers. NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 c910fc0b-a157-43e2-af63-46386babae02 00:45:20.641 --> 00:45:24.253 So you would think that the best people at ruling would be the ruler NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 5e80e8ae-f9b9-48af-8cfa-e36280d8ac9f 00:45:24.253 --> 00:45:28.166 lovers -- you know, the best people to be in power would be the NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 fcd03466-1287-45c5-aca8-030b145dc28d 00:45:28.166 --> 00:45:31.176 power lovers. But Socrates says no. This just raises the NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 79574c7f-7944-44fe-8ac2-5abfb346543c 00:45:31.176 --> 00:45:35.089 question of, what are the desires that drive a good ruler? And not NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 261a22a7-012e-44d4-bf0a-8f1acde00514 00:45:35.089 --> 00:45:39.002 just a political ruler but the leader of a club or a group NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 b0ecd92e-5905-4bfe-9e20-9b45b6451381 00:45:39.002 --> 00:45:42.915 project. You know, what should the goal of a leader be, and what NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 1c1f5aaf-16be-4ff8-816d-6dcada02727d 00:45:42.915 --> 00:45:46.226 should the desires driving them be? And then perhaps in Books NOTE Confidence: 0.8634746 9e6915bd-70ae-48d5-85a2-479cbf9ca7b0 00:45:46.226 --> 00:45:48.032 5 and 6, perhaps the most NOTE Confidence: 0.79590636 75b1c688-48da-40fe-a349-9ebc4bbbdecd 00:45:48.032 --> 00:45:50.826 outrageous claim of the Republic is that NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 3b6f6a08-297c-47f4-b77b-dd2ae9735e8b 00:45:50.826 --> 00:45:54.723 philosophers should rule. But this presents a bit of a NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 d09d1569-647e-4213-9e9a-8030b100c088 00:45:54.723 --> 00:45:57.355 challenge, because Socrates compares philosophers to a ship's NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 5d798283-d23d-423f-9883-7814a5cb1912 00:45:57.355 --> 00:46:01.303 captain and says that just as the sailors might not NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 0798165a-0d7d-4801-9cc5-b175751560a2 00:46:01.303 --> 00:46:04.593 always understand what the captain is doing, the NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 7a2b0b6c-b01a-4853-9237-4070aa05e921 00:46:04.593 --> 00:46:07.225 population might not always understand what the philosopher NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 54d17e74-c02a-4ee7-abfa-c65c1baccdc9 00:46:07.225 --> 00:46:11.173 ruler is doing. But as long as the ship's captain or the NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 a68c4fb8-735a-483f-91d6-fa42ade36300 00:46:11.173 --> 00:46:14.792 philosopher ruler is good at what they do, that's okay. But NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 86e6f99d-f22c-4f5d-b6c7-3e007b84704c 00:46:14.792 --> 00:46:18.411 that puts the sailors or the population in a tricky position, NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 79056e4f-915d-484d-8607-829a25a86c06 00:46:18.411 --> 00:46:21.701 because how can they tell the difference between a good NOTE Confidence: 0.86821026 2fad76e9-3b4a-4960-959c-9364d3d16e3a 00:46:21.701 --> 00:46:23.346 captain or a bad captain? NOTE Confidence: 0.8281116 404eb7d5-28f6-4710-916c-a58ebaf86fda 00:46:24.510 --> 00:46:28.423 And that brings us to Books 8 and 9, and I hope this NOTE Confidence: 0.8281116 ed1febec-fadd-4ad4-a913-eaf79972b033 00:46:28.423 --> 00:46:32.035 encourages you to keep reading, because I think here are NOTE Confidence: 0.8281116 9b95364f-5cae-43ea-9972-0604bd3106ae 00:46:32.035 --> 00:46:34.744 some of the most interesting descriptions of NOTE Confidence: 0.8281116 ec5edf02-1ff0-4188-b643-f29ca6d168d0 00:46:34.744 --> 00:46:37.754 what it's like to truly desire power. Socrates explains that NOTE Confidence: 0.8963016 d3b003a0-beac-4434-8a37-7b3dacf344ef 00:46:37.754 --> 00:46:41.650 there's a problem with the desire for and love of power. And he NOTE Confidence: 0.8963016 e77d7736-52dc-4039-95eb-ab080344e7c8 00:46:41.650 --> 00:46:44.300 says this -- and I've been thinking about this a lot -- NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 2288e33d-bfab-4acf-ade3-f64ff375b610 00:46:44.890 --> 00:46:48.571 he says, "their desires are insatiable, for the part NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 a7d02ba6-41cd-412a-b39f-444679158490 00:46:48.571 --> 00:46:53.888 they're trying to fill is like a vessel full of holes, and neither NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 929841a4-f21c-4c2f-87d1-60c8bb2fbf01 00:46:53.888 --> 00:46:59.205 it nor the things they're trying to fill it with are among the NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 b2509530-551b-457e-a244-a287a7a980ac 00:46:59.205 --> 00:47:03.704 things that are." Socrates is warning us of the problems with NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 c248421c-54b9-4e78-bdae-c8a76207b931 00:47:03.704 --> 00:47:07.385 unsatisfiable desires. He's really NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 2ae73dfa-e2bc-46a4-994b-229918705834 00:47:07.385 --> 00:47:11.884 asking, or Plato is asking, what is wrong with fostering desires NOTE Confidence: 0.86509055 3fce8fc3-5036-4685-967b-b444c5b63cd2 00:47:11.884 --> 00:47:13.520 that we can't satisfy? NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 3d96fede-9971-4267-b7c9-7d08f5b8e7d4 00:47:14.900 --> 00:47:20.052 And that is going to be part of his diagnosis of what's so bad NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 a27b91a3-4f5f-4740-8270-b4a7a554499a 00:47:20.052 --> 00:47:24.468 about the desire for power. And I think this is important to NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 24efa75e-ec01-49e0-ab39-18b65d23f502 00:47:24.468 --> 00:47:27.412 articulate, because having power is important -- you know, NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 d3e04676-804f-4c0b-88ed-9f47d33a3437 00:47:27.412 --> 00:47:31.460 especially when you don't have any. And so the question NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 6f928aab-fabb-4490-8c0b-58ceba7a7a2d 00:47:31.460 --> 00:47:36.244 is, Is every desire for power a problem? When is the NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 0a6c428b-220e-48d9-b104-be70f9f281df 00:47:36.244 --> 00:47:40.292 desire for power a problem? And Socrates suggests it's about the NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 ee040e62-20e4-43eb-9507-22ec9e6547e5 00:47:40.292 --> 00:47:43.236 unsatisfiability of those desires. This really brings me to NOTE Confidence: 0.8893541 6a369902-455b-4a68-b7f4-2f18801cb5df 00:47:43.236 --> 00:47:46.180 think about Socrates's veneration of the truth. NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 c957b1bd-fde7-4c19-9b0b-20b6770e1e6f 00:47:46.470 --> 00:47:49.902 And, you know, this is the topic that sort of always NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 11071086-647b-4654-bc28-c83fe85a4aff 00:47:49.902 --> 00:47:53.334 gets me, because as a philosopher I might say, NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 49247d5c-a339-4448-bf9b-87b9633753c1 00:47:53.334 --> 00:47:56.766 "Yes, I'm on board with this. You know, I'm committed to the NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 eb453f37-781f-4a28-a489-54dc897e613f 00:47:56.766 --> 00:48:01.056 truth. I love the truth. I want to know it. I want to share it. NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 6e8fdfb7-0868-4310-b346-e345550741a2 00:48:01.056 --> 00:48:04.488 Let's build a society committed to loving it. I'm NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 037ac569-1419-4089-bdb8-10722c61c271 00:48:04.488 --> 00:48:07.920 on board with that. Let's say I'm on board with that." But the surprising NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 1e95138e-1b33-4d9f-ab64-abc16aa41830 00:48:07.920 --> 00:48:10.780 thing then is when Socrates describes his ideal city,  NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 38772a54-9b31-4c6d-8e70-1caacec060ca 00:48:10.780 --> 00:48:14.784 what does he tell us? He says it's based on a myth, a myth NOTE Confidence: 0.8530302 c0e39b2a-bdde-43b7-9f13-b020c6f2eac9 00:48:14.784 --> 00:48:17.358 that is, strictly speaking, false. Socrates founds his ideal NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 02766f58-998b-4584-ab77-dd7f5e979251 00:48:17.358 --> 00:48:20.910 city, ruled by people that love the truth, on a falsehood that NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 46c9e5b6-de17-40e0-9c73-37554d8579fa 00:48:20.910 --> 00:48:24.390 they share with everyone, which is the Myth of the Metals. It NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 a27f3df9-bac3-4f47-a756-4f831a3c09a4 00:48:24.390 --> 00:48:27.870 says that all of us are born from the Earth as siblings with NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 fb262740-2ced-46cd-81ff-1e608562ad9c 00:48:27.870 --> 00:48:31.060 metal in our soul that determines the role we will play NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 18a6ac5e-f20f-4127-a6bc-8dcee795d30c 00:48:31.060 --> 00:48:34.540 in society. And Socrates says that this myth will help us be NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 36216d5a-d9cb-4882-90b1-0c0f6c446374 00:48:34.540 --> 00:48:38.310 kinder to one another, because if we were all born of the Earth NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 899d507c-c6b6-4d04-8144-8c0ededebdb4 00:48:38.310 --> 00:48:41.790 together, then we are siblings. It bonds us in a type NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 3ce1722a-f13a-43a6-94ef-b63fb35a4b51 00:48:41.790 --> 00:48:44.980 of kinship together, all of us. And now what's so surprising NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 12f791f9-b21b-4246-b7ad-99ea3826f2cc 00:48:44.980 --> 00:48:48.170 about this is Plato didn't literally think that we have NOTE Confidence: 0.8587283 a87a078e-de26-43f9-84f4-5bdd23ebe02b 00:48:48.170 --> 00:48:49.330 metal in our souls. NOTE Confidence: 0.8374359 31650d74-4d45-4d24-82b9-c50a0254b3c4 00:48:49.520 --> 00:48:52.864 And the people founding the ideal city acknowledge that as NOTE Confidence: 0.8374359 323debf9-abf5-4748-bff3-fab4221c9ba3 00:48:52.864 --> 00:48:56.208 well. And yet, Socrates thinks that NOTE Confidence: 0.8374359 0fcc4d84-61ee-405d-9a18-9eb477ba87a8 00:48:56.208 --> 00:49:00.160 it's going to be ruled by people that love the truth. And what NOTE Confidence: 0.8374359 2c195ecd-7a53-4747-8c76-8d8e1e482176 00:49:00.160 --> 00:49:02.288 did the truth lovers do? They NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 ba9c9af8-41b6-42a9-a46e-8cdf5c628c01 00:49:02.288 --> 00:49:06.584 start this falsehood. And so I think this sort of question is: NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 72ffd213-3fc6-4318-84b6-61e992076241 00:49:06.584 --> 00:49:11.174 When is it okay to lie for the sake of the good? NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 bf501b28-f24a-4c5f-a76c-2ab33eedfc45 00:49:11.174 --> 00:49:14.846 Is this an acceptable lie? And that really NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 e716b7c2-5c2b-464b-956d-e73c5a8ed1be 00:49:14.846 --> 00:49:18.518 brings us to Book 5, where the interlocutors discuss a bit more NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 8aad4567-88ab-412e-ab5e-c71272857428 00:49:18.518 --> 00:49:22.496 the idea of, could a lie be good? Could a lie be like NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 1158d03b-6ab1-46cb-aff0-133e76363373 00:49:22.496 --> 00:49:26.168 medicine? And I think that this is a really tricky question. You NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 4b902fd8-8102-410a-96be-f9931c089293 00:49:26.168 --> 00:49:29.228 know, when do we understand lies as dangerous, and when could NOTE Confidence: 0.8446977 42217666-4d89-44f6-b3d5-0474afdab081 00:49:29.228 --> 00:49:33.512 they be helpful? And that really brings me to Book 10. All of you NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 71138e9b-5626-4dbe-b06a-3fdf198a77aa 00:49:33.512 --> 00:49:36.996 have just read Native Guard recently, which I NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 c2613a53-e08d-4953-8dd7-d62aa7e61c6d 00:49:36.996 --> 00:49:40.116 found revelatory in that there were many truths between those NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 e548e6c9-4676-4beb-bb2d-45bd35026f5a 00:49:40.116 --> 00:49:44.172 pages. But Socrates comes along in Book 10, and he asks what is NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 90fc5352-da4e-490e-a1e1-1d96cb18962d 00:49:44.172 --> 00:49:48.228 the role of poetry in the ideal city, and he says poets are NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 c333b9e0-b7b6-4cd5-ad88-f11f2652b8a5 00:49:48.228 --> 00:49:52.596 imitators and we need to cast them out. And what I urge you to NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 a6985d54-4608-4201-9450-29b1fa66dc75 00:49:52.596 --> 00:49:56.340 do is look at his reasons for thinking that. He says what's NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 16964bc5-983f-45a5-aa02-19fee325bbf3 00:49:56.340 --> 00:49:59.460 important is what is, the forms. And craftsmen, they don't NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 0abd9e24-9314-4f38-a9e0-6d3fcc61d42c 00:49:59.460 --> 00:50:02.580 directly think about the forms but make physical objects. And NOTE Confidence: 0.83503723 59c06f63-91a2-4cbc-90c5-e2cf465f2f62 00:50:02.580 --> 00:50:05.700 then what do poets do? Poets write imitations of those NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 f7ffd599-eaae-40c1-aef3-e9fa609e1aaf 00:50:05.700 --> 00:50:09.562 physical objects. So poets are far away from the forms, NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 ce7dec47-18ef-4654-bf8b-a6498b9dc555 00:50:09.562 --> 00:50:12.514 according to Socrates, because they're making imitations of NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 a97b801d-7e66-4028-b629-dcb2b62cae90 00:50:12.514 --> 00:50:15.835 physical objects, which are themselves at best imitations of NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 fbd7abf5-c1ae-4832-b966-1afdcc7204be 00:50:15.835 --> 00:50:19.156 the forms. But then Socrates says something interesting. He NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 227eea0a-03c2-49ce-9a7f-916f94ea833a 00:50:19.156 --> 00:50:23.584 says, if you could convince me that poets do something else, I NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 316f9de9-292a-4e3e-bd07-d0ff1d15e414 00:50:23.584 --> 00:50:28.012 would listen -- but I don't see a better argument. And that's a NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 b2f70e95-5828-4034-a9ed-5d119ec784bc 00:50:28.012 --> 00:50:31.702 challenge for you. Can you convince Socrates that the poets NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 4986c29c-8357-4143-9cc2-d01a54fdd308 00:50:31.702 --> 00:50:35.392 aren't harmful -- or even helpful? How can poets share NOTE Confidence: 0.8502444 a3055d3c-cf48-4464-a362-f22a1fb553a8 00:50:35.392 --> 00:50:38.344 knowledge? Is Trethewey guilty of making imitation monuments, NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 ce37a0a8-fecc-4a47-a050-e4ac71b70273 00:50:38.460 --> 00:50:42.050 or making monuments? Are are there some forms or knowledge NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 143f178f-65e4-482b-91ef-00efab135242 00:50:42.050 --> 00:50:46.717 there? And how can poets convey them? And I wanted to go through NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 f20569b3-27a7-4648-9298-2c6f02363c55 00:50:46.717 --> 00:50:51.025 these themes because I think -- you know, I know it's a NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 88175824-a319-44f5-b784-ad1d87472a58 00:50:51.025 --> 00:50:54.615 lot of information -- but I think they really reveal this NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 b6188aff-5f85-4c02-a57b-edd138ae5fe5 00:50:54.615 --> 00:50:58.564 important program of questions. You know, yes, do I think that NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 16206d39-7158-444e-850a-7f47bf2f3d2b 00:50:58.564 --> 00:51:01.436 Socrates's answers are interesting and engaging. But NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 8307bc52-a399-4142-87cc-9fd60414521a 00:51:01.436 --> 00:51:04.667 more importantly, setting this program of questions: What is NOTE Confidence: 0.87621564 28299dca-bd69-4ab7-82e9-4099cd77aa9a 00:51:04.667 --> 00:51:08.616 the goal of education? What is justice? Is a just life a good life? NOTE Confidence: 0.8252406 e934cb77-5764-472f-87af-53653b587ef7 00:51:08.980 --> 00:51:13.390 Who should rule? Are falsehoods and lies ever good? NOTE Confidence: 0.8252406 6a0900c4-5b78-4084-b011-b194bdb2e7a3 00:51:13.390 --> 00:51:17.800 How can art and poetry distort or reveal the truth? NOTE Confidence: 0.9064556 beb28246-4d08-4a05-817d-af1802b970ab 00:51:20.350 --> 00:51:21.710 Here is one more image. NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 9a04bd1d-ff34-414e-91ac-e2a4f1c4f291 00:51:24.390 --> 00:51:29.187 This is a Renaissance image by Raphael that came to be known as NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 d0975eb4-c5e0-444f-8875-67687203572b 00:51:29.187 --> 00:51:33.615 "The School of Athens." Here is Plato. Plato did found a school NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 c70c2a26-e6a2-45fb-9c11-cf3df31327d1 00:51:33.615 --> 00:51:38.043 in 387 BCE, and here is one of his students, Aristotle, that NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 d97020f5-1ab8-458b-9da0-c35ff417c9fc 00:51:38.043 --> 00:51:41.733 attended his school. But what's interesting about this image is NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 f10d84d5-0379-400e-9266-2a7bb69df54f 00:51:41.733 --> 00:51:46.530 that so many of the people here depicted as part of the school NOTE Confidence: 0.85724604 d8592ff3-805f-4d17-a1b3-989d6d9b8373 00:51:46.530 --> 00:51:49.851 of Athens never attended Plato's school. We've got Socrates. NOTE Confidence: 0.7159757 11456bd7-23b7-4e4b-a861-b84c5a2ce06b 00:51:50.990 --> 00:51:53.520 We've got Roman philosopher Boethius. NOTE Confidence: 0.7620461 29fe40a7-dcaa-407d-abb7-3939d1efabe2 00:51:54.600 --> 00:51:58.072 12th century Islamic philosopher Averroes.  NOTE Confidence: 0.7620461 8db8e31c-fadb-4ed9-a006-b6c0174cb91a 00:51:58.072 --> 00:51:59.560 And even Raphael himself. NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 7a492d4e-c0e6-46c7-b49d-d6e17ee8cce8 00:52:00.990 --> 00:52:05.917 What it means to be part of Plato's school in "The School of NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 2b9a201c-3015-4fa2-9f92-4b3139de8da6 00:52:05.917 --> 00:52:09.707 Athens" -- it doesn't require that you learn directly from Plato NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 abb48825-7b6d-4ca5-be2b-8663ae91da34 00:52:09.707 --> 00:52:13.876 himself. Many of these people are in "The School of Athens" NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 e925642c-4fdc-4b68-96e1-3720b3b4d98f 00:52:13.876 --> 00:52:17.666 because they read Plato and translated Plato. Now it's very NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 bc8cf2d1-b0e2-4255-9afa-9cad0132c9ca 00:52:17.666 --> 00:52:21.456 hard to learn from Plato directly, even reading NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 4a22ff9f-ea68-4193-b4fb-539ca8174a2d 00:52:21.456 --> 00:52:25.246 the original copies of the Republic. You see 300 years NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 ec00c97d-1ff6-44c9-81bc-9e319a1854f6 00:52:25.246 --> 00:52:29.036 after the founding of the school, it was destroyed -- the  NOTE Confidence: 0.8692225 26daf28b-553f-4ee2-ba07-f554bbc8a884 00:52:29.036 --> 00:52:33.205 Academy was destroyed -- and all of the copies of Plato's Republic NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 97493f1b-4c43-4817-97f8-97e6e62131bf 00:52:33.340 --> 00:52:37.201 were also destroyed. And so we don't actually know exactly how NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 7357a075-9401-4e1a-940d-eea596421a8c 00:52:37.201 --> 00:52:40.711 the Republic survived. We have some fragments of the NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 4111bc00-37e8-4380-9f1c-216d25365621 00:52:40.711 --> 00:52:45.274 Republic from 100 to 300 CE, but those are so limited that we NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 7c3412b2-a477-49c3-983b-9de2655e2191 00:52:45.274 --> 00:52:49.135 can't actually, and we don't, use them to generate translations of NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 2e0a72a5-ccc5-4f0e-9a98-5ba88a5afd0f 00:52:49.135 --> 00:52:53.698 the Republic. We don't know the full story of how the NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 7da133f7-8134-40b0-a169-c2d06c8941f3 00:52:53.698 --> 00:52:56.857 Republic survived, although we know existed, because you can NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 9cf93bb4-0fea-4f04-af29-8222df240ef7 00:52:56.857 --> 00:53:01.069 read Cicero's commentary on the Ring of Gyges. So we know that NOTE Confidence: 0.8625631 62e4f416-93a0-4d0b-8d96-fe3b7685cb3a 00:53:01.069 --> 00:53:04.930 people were reading the Republic, but we no longer have those copies. NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 3a967ec4-2d66-4815-be85-fd70ee6feaa8 00:53:05.310 --> 00:53:08.896 And what's really wild is that it isn't until the 800s CE NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 f74637ba-c8bf-4b62-9eae-80cbf5a436c9 00:53:08.896 --> 00:53:12.482 that the copies of the Republic were generated, the NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 876984c1-5d47-403b-91a0-bfce267cd544 00:53:12.482 --> 00:53:16.068 manuscripts, that we have today, now, and use as translations of NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 6dfd317b-636b-43ed-b730-91a36feda0c3 00:53:16.068 --> 00:53:20.306 the Republic. And then they were copied by hand. You can see the NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 68e5fe22-469b-4f35-a6d1-6a907ce26447 00:53:20.306 --> 00:53:23.566 columns here with commentary in the margins, and I highlighted NOTE Confidence: 0.883401 3b780be9-3192-47de-8dc2-49de785542fd 00:53:23.566 --> 00:53:25.522 them because I thought it might NOTE Confidence: 0.8838469 8ed5ca23-bab0-4ed1-ae56-0870aede2064 00:53:25.522 --> 00:53:30.126 remind you of the comments that you make in the margins of your NOTE Confidence: 0.8838469 7d6b860f-b1d1-4dc4-89e9-d858101ca02e 00:53:30.126 --> 00:53:31.310 copies of the Republic. NOTE Confidence: 0.8661311 eb8f8c16-cb5f-4700-b3b1-1cb019dcc7b3 00:53:32.110 --> 00:53:36.202 And what we'll actually see is that it was copied for hundreds NOTE Confidence: 0.8661311 f0c5329e-5c7d-4e3f-a226-8f2104eabb96 00:53:36.202 --> 00:53:39.953 more years -- until 1587, with the invention of the printing press, NOTE Confidence: 0.8661311 8a7f3077-0575-41d7-bae9-16fa5b985d75 00:53:39.953 --> 00:53:40.976 that Henry Stephanus NOTE Confidence: 0.5901485 ca7de84b-532f-4663-a85d-2ba50475ed00 00:53:42.320 --> 00:53:44.669 typeset and printed NOTE Confidence: 0.88050634 2ce79055-f5e6-4df6-89b2-f532c7673155 00:53:46.180 --> 00:53:50.608 the Republic. And here you can see on the left hand column NOTE Confidence: 0.88050634 c0468002-ac88-4431-b3ff-b623a2ee74c9 00:53:50.608 --> 00:53:55.036 we've got it in Latin and in the right hand column Greek. NOTE Confidence: 0.88050634 8f07f8d5-4eab-497a-b1dc-b8e81bfa59a6 00:53:55.036 --> 00:53:58.357 And you'll notice in between those two columns are NOTE Confidence: 0.88050634 5b723800-51ee-49c2-8888-f95a01f45691 00:53:58.357 --> 00:53:59.464 uppercase letters: A, B, C. NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 4aafa6d4-4005-4239-b6bb-964ebf0c2095 00:54:01.530 --> 00:54:06.885 And if we back away a little bit further, you can see on the top NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 f98230a0-8365-4f1d-8935-3ddc855fed70 00:54:06.885 --> 00:54:10.812 left of this page that the page number in the Stephanus NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 a5d1b803-f8bb-45f5-ad9d-20b096d20e0d 00:54:10.812 --> 00:54:15.096 collection is 514. This is the beginning of the Allegory of the NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 3582afe7-4815-4b07-9726-cb54b98989d5 00:54:15.096 --> 00:54:19.380 Cave, so the Allegory of The Cave began in Stephanus's NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 c34fe8ee-810f-4057-b49a-8b22d2de690b 00:54:19.380 --> 00:54:24.378 collection on 514A, and if you look in your copy at the margin, NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 4809c84c-8cb9-432a-a2ca-6282634476fd 00:54:24.378 --> 00:54:29.376 you'll see that the the Allegory of The Cave begins at 514A. The NOTE Confidence: 0.87427545 b5071d6d-fb5d-42bc-869f-265b62ba6bea 00:54:29.376 --> 00:54:31.161 remnants of Stephanus are used NOTE Confidence: 0.8820319 92a60307-dba1-4f1c-a2b3-c6b9edf82b05 00:54:31.161 --> 00:54:33.388 to correlate all translations together. NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 3dc7da0f-171f-4c31-b869-29ef2961d8fa 00:54:34.620 --> 00:54:38.060 What's even more interesting, though, is that we don't have NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 d90779f6-8dfb-451d-b519-83a5e27e4883 00:54:38.060 --> 00:54:41.844 the copies that Stephanus used in order to generate this NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 3e57aa19-fe31-4d5c-a136-145acf14bf0e 00:54:41.844 --> 00:54:45.284 translation. It would take another 400 years of excavating in order NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 4ce442a8-f1f5-4813-a69f-6492c638bdae 00:54:45.284 --> 00:54:49.068 to rediscover the copies that will ultimately be used to translate NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 b1573902-bb48-434c-a0df-005acb677728 00:54:49.068 --> 00:54:52.852 the Republic and form the book that you know today. There are NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 10b6fc82-0e36-420e-9b18-df6e328772e3 00:54:52.852 --> 00:54:56.980 35 fragments, in fact, together that are used to form NOTE Confidence: 0.8868611 c3e107e3-7e61-4a6f-a6f2-d19ff082a785 00:54:56.980 --> 00:54:58.356 translations of the Republic. NOTE Confidence: 0.86868507 d2736576-e913-4f8d-8a9f-8254e975c58e 00:54:59.440 --> 00:55:03.850 And I wanted to just end with a couple more images. This is an NOTE Confidence: 0.86868507 8fe871b2-22c7-4e66-a59d-5428d56eba44 00:55:03.850 --> 00:55:07.630 olive tree from Sicily, and it's over 3000 years old, and I NOTE Confidence: 0.86868507 32e89e23-3794-4edc-9e87-716d75b6d86e 00:55:07.630 --> 00:55:10.780 included it here because it was alive when Plato wrote the NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 af200554-0d92-4285-8903-fa35bbc953e0 00:55:10.780 --> 00:55:14.974 Republic. Here's another organism, the Llareta. It's not a NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 c4816aa1-93c4-4811-9ebb-377b89522ba6 00:55:14.974 --> 00:55:20.406 tree, but it lives in the arid deserts of Chile, and it too is NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 f4838e01-ca32-4872-ba78-11a861665939 00:55:20.406 --> 00:55:25.062 thousands of years old years old and was alive when Plato wrote NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 25fe63c8-19b4-4425-b375-cf8eada8b8fa 00:55:25.062 --> 00:55:28.942 the Republic. Both of these organisms put down roots and NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 907bcf13-4aca-4f97-9fc4-f8e6d2ef05e0 00:55:28.942 --> 00:55:33.210 grew in the same place, and that's how they survived for NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 481413cd-63d5-4c63-97a9-0519bf0c2e70 00:55:33.210 --> 00:55:36.702 thousands of years. But that's not how Plato's Republic NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 e99c905e-7df8-4e11-b4ad-ff933e381c86 00:55:36.702 --> 00:55:40.194 survived. I got these images from Rachel Sussman's photo NOTE Confidence: 0.85121834 17eab2f2-89ae-4ebd-b789-e6dcdd26f319 00:55:40.194 --> 00:55:43.298 project, The Oldest Living Things in the World. NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 021ea397-301e-466f-b698-82fbd6459c7d 00:55:43.960 --> 00:55:47.670 And through that project I was introduced to another organism NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 e6d352ab-df6b-4d19-98ba-54c7486b56b2 00:55:47.670 --> 00:55:52.122 which is a collection of Aspen in Utah and known as Pando. NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 07012fb2-9289-4bf9-93f4-20f32ed3ac04 00:55:52.122 --> 00:55:56.203 Pando is a clonal colony, and Sussman explains what appears to NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 472fae02-10e9-436b-9a61-4987ddb6dea2 00:55:56.203 --> 00:56:00.655 be a forest is, in a sense, one tree. It's a set of clones NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 43232887-2add-47de-8d1d-146128f3cbdd 00:56:00.655 --> 00:56:04.736 connected by one root system. This one root system shoots up NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 a89c4963-dd4c-4276-a375-0fe8b5da0ae6 00:56:04.736 --> 00:56:08.446 genetically identical clones. And now this organism has been alive for NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 03f697c9-64b2-4946-9356-8b20cdadf90d 00:56:08.446 --> 00:56:12.527 thousands of years, too. It was alive when Plato wrote the NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 2e169704-71d4-4e62-b9f8-b1f01306f991 00:56:12.527 --> 00:56:15.495 Republic. But what really fascinates me about Pando NOTE Confidence: 0.82481533 2cef7acf-4042-42e0-8f57-eca20d47b144 00:56:15.495 --> 00:56:18.834 specifically is that no one Aspen has survived NOTE Confidence: 0.85532725 86d9af70-93fc-414d-a1d0-92a991f7e0cd 00:56:18.970 --> 00:56:23.150 the lifetime of Pando, and that's actually how the Republic NOTE Confidence: 0.85532725 ee8174d4-e60e-493e-9e60-04d854a1caaf 00:56:23.150 --> 00:56:27.330 has survived. There's no one copy of the Republic that has NOTE Confidence: 0.85532725 8248ce3b-eff7-4846-bd75-dcbb66294379 00:56:27.330 --> 00:56:30.370 survived the Republic's lifetime. And maybe this highlights NOTE Confidence: 0.85532725 37b895e0-4fce-4048-b3fd-b549d7eb7629 00:56:30.370 --> 00:56:33.410 another difference between these organisms and the Republic, NOTE Confidence: 0.85532725 cafecc2b-ebfd-404b-8579-e8edaa5a820f 00:56:33.410 --> 00:56:37.970 which is that the Republic itself is not alive. In fact, it NOTE Confidence: 0.8896549 19a4bca5-e98b-434c-b293-538d1f4c1b79 00:56:37.970 --> 00:56:41.460 depended on people for its survival. People whose names NOTE Confidence: 0.8896549 15b0536c-9732-4da3-9961-40a85fa5946c 00:56:41.460 --> 00:56:45.640 we will never know, copied it and carried it and commented NOTE Confidence: 0.8896549 783052c6-ce15-4722-b823-28bfba1883d4 00:56:45.640 --> 00:56:50.200 on it and cared about it and translated it and kept on NOTE Confidence: 0.8896549 74ff33cb-d840-4226-9eda-e68eb4cd14e1 00:56:50.200 --> 00:56:50.960 reading it. NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 9045b0d6-53a9-46fd-864f-ce4926a51762 00:56:52.500 --> 00:56:57.570 I wanted to return to Plato's words: "no one is to be honored NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 99cc9d0f-31a1-4020-8d16-df191873bd11 00:56:57.570 --> 00:57:03.030 or valued more than the truth. So, as I say, it must be told." NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 62b5d530-7809-4ea2-8a20-d0b89c96808b 00:57:03.030 --> 00:57:07.710 Plato recognizes how hard it is to find the truth, let alone NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 07a0464f-0725-42ee-a98d-7fa85210abc5 00:57:07.710 --> 00:57:11.610 tell anyone about it. And it's not just because defining NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 f3105633-7db3-4519-8ad4-648a71acc1be 00:57:11.610 --> 00:57:15.900 something is difficult. We live in a material world with finite NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 a3fb6486-4b6b-42b7-a825-d799adeca0a9 00:57:15.900 --> 00:57:19.410 lifetimes, and it's hard sometimes to see beyond those NOTE Confidence: 0.86684024 202ed3af-dffa-4004-83ba-3c9864268507 00:57:19.410 --> 00:57:22.920 lifetimes and to recognize instances, new instances, of NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 8a89a5da-3cea-4d12-a7be-086713eb5556 00:57:22.920 --> 00:57:27.778 just and unjust things, as well as old just and unjust things. NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 215dcb54-a69a-4f54-a634-f5d6ef7b51fb 00:57:27.778 --> 00:57:32.146 And Plato thinks that what is essential is that you start by NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 1383c0cf-2622-46c6-8292-0fbed9267ec1 00:57:32.146 --> 00:57:36.150 honoring the truth with a good set of questions, questions that NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 f7249bf9-9d6b-4873-9cd1-091484559181 00:57:36.150 --> 00:57:39.790 you're willing to ask of yourselves and others, and I NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 e622475b-fcd9-48a8-b902-f5288081f73d 00:57:39.790 --> 00:57:42.338 think that that's the opportunity that Plato's NOTE Confidence: 0.8611147 2667a180-e33a-42cc-bb66-133f28d6d1df 00:57:42.338 --> 00:57:44.886 Republic offers after 2400 years. Thank you.